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White, B. 2019. Rural youth, today and tomorrow. IFAD research series 48. Rome, IFAD. www.ifad.org/documents/d/new-ifad.org/08_white_2019-rdr-background-paper-pdf

254.

ILC (International Land Coalition). Youth access to land: Redistributive policies and pro-youth quota. https://learn.landcoalition.org/es/blogs/youth-access-land-redistributive-policies-and-pro-youth-quota

255.

White, B. 2020. Agriculture and the generation problem. Rugby, UK, Practical Action Publishing. https://practicalactionpublishing.com/book/45/download%3Ftype%3Ddownload.pdf

256.

Eco Ruralis. Farm succession and youth access to land in Europe. www.accesstoland.eu/IMG/pdf/farm_succession_report_eco_ruralis_en_web.pdf

257.

258.

United Nations. Youth and the United Nations. www.un.org/youthenvoy/youth-un

259.

FAO. Youth engagement in food systems transformation. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/cc0583en

260.

IFAD. IFAD Action Plan for Rural Youth. www.ifad.org/en/w/corporate-documents/policies/ifad-action-plan-rural-youth

261.

USAID. Youth Policy and Programs. www.usaid.gov/policy/youth

262.

African Union. African Youth Charter. https://au.int/en/treaties/african-youth-charter

263.

Council of Europe. Youth Strategy 2030. www.coe.int/en/web/youth/youth-strategy

264.

ICA (International Co-operative Alliance). Young People and Cooperatives: A Global Report. https://coops4dev.coop/sites/default/files/2021-03/Coops4devYoungPeopleReport.pdf

265.

ILO. Youth employment and decent work. www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_emp/
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266.

Vinci, I., Hani, M. & Djeddah, C. 2016. Local solutions to social protection – the role of rural organizations. Rome, FAO. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/9715bc3e-f9c8-4c41-bf1e-fc66c59ac32b/content

267.

Awortwi, N. 2018. Social protection is a grassroots reality: Making the case for policy reflections on community‐based social protection actors and services in Africa. Development Policy Review, 36(S2). https://doi.org/10.1111/dpr.12364

268.

Goh, L. 2022. How agritech is transforming traditional agriculture in emerging markets: "Think big, act fast, start small". In: H. Kharas, J.W. McArthur & I. Ohno, eds. Breakthrough: The promise of frontier technologies for sustainable development. pp. 125–148. Washington, DC. Brookings Institution Press. https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/11/edited_volume/chapter/3054461

269.

Singh, S. & Datta, N. 2021. Digital solutions for youth agripreneurs. Washington, DC, World Bank Group. https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/en/099529103152349556

270.

Benni, N., Berno, D. & Cungu, A. 2022. Promoting access to agricultural finance for youth in developing countries. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc2868en

271.

Mastercard Foundation. Fintech company aims to address challenges in ag-economy. https://mastercardfdn.org/en/articles/fintech-company-aims-to-address-challenges-in-ag-economy

272.

Heifer International. ThriveAgric: Championing youth in agriculture. https://ayute.africa/champions/2023/thriveagric

273.

MIT. Innovative solutions for youth in agriculture. https://solve.mit.edu/solutions/70957

274.

Trivelli, C. & Morel, J. 2021. Rural youth inclusion, empowerment, and participation. Journal of Development Studies, 57(4): 635–649.

275.

United Nations. Our Common Agenda: Policy Brief on Youth Engagement. www.un.org/sites/un2.un.org/files/our-common-agenda-policy-brief-youth-engagement-en.pdf

276.

World Bank. undated. The Living Standards Measurement Study (LSMS). The World Bank's Flagship Household Survey Program. In: World Bank. Washington, DC. [Cited 8 May 2025]. www.worldbank.org/en/programs/lsms

277.

United Nations. undated. Youth. In: Global Issues. New York, USA. [Cited 7 May 2025]. www.un.org/en/global-issues/youth

278.

Porciello, J., Coggins, S., Otunda-Payne, G. & Mabaya, E. 2021. A Systematic scoping review: How are farmers using digital services in low- and middle-income countries? Agriculture in the Digital Age. https://hdl.handle.net/1813/103771

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FAO. Monitoring and Analysing Food and Agricultural Policies (MAFAP). www.fao.org/in-action/mafap/en

280.

OECD. Agricultural Policy Monitoring and Evaluation 2024. www.oecd.org/en/publications/agricultural-policy-monitoring-and-evaluation-2024_74da57ed-en.html

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283.

Neufeld, L.M., Andrade, E.B., Ballonoff Suleiman, A., Barker, M., Beal, T., Blum, L.S., Demmler, K.M. et al. 2022. Food choice in transition: Adolescent autonomy, agency, and the food environment. The Lancet, 399(10320): 185–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01687-1

284.

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285.

Andersson Djurfeldt, A. 2021. Translocal livelihoods research and the household in the Global South – a gendered perspective. Journal of Rural Studies, 86: 16–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2021.05.018

286.

Mercandalli, S., Losch, B., Belebema, M.N., Bélières, J-F., Bourgeois, R., Dinbabo, M.F., Fréguin-Gresh, S. et al. 2019. Rural migration in sub-Saharan Africa: Patterns, drivers and relation to structural transformation. Working Paper. Rome, FAO & CIRAD. https://openknowledge.fao.org/items/7e560d26-08c8-49a1-841b-054a9ef8c34e

287.

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288.

Tacoli, C., Agergaard, J., Andreasen, M.H. & Brown, D. 2025. Introduction: Changing rural-urban linkages in the Global South. In: C. Tacoli, J. Agergaard, M.H. Andreasen & D. Brown, eds. Handbook on rural-urban linkages in the Global South. Cheltenham, UK, Edward Elgar Publishing. www.elgaronline.com/edcollchap/book/9781802207712/chapter1.xml

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Magbondé, K.G., Mignouna, D., Manyong, V., Adéoti, R. & Sossou, A.O. 2023. Impact of informal institutions on youth agribusiness participation in Southern Benin. Agricultural and Food Economics, 11(1): 11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40100-023-00250-1

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Daum, T. 2023. Mechanization and sustainable agri-food system transformation in the Global South. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 43(1): 16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-023-00868-x

292.

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BOXES AND SPOTLIGHTS

CHAPTER 1

BOX 1.1 | TRADE-OFFS IN AGRIFOOD SYSTEMS TRANSITIONS

Marshall, Q., Fanzo, J., Barrett, C.B., Jones, A.D., Herforth, A. & McLaren, R. 2021. Building a global food systems typology: A new tool for reducing complexity in food systems analysis. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2021.746512

ii.

FAO. 2024. The State of Food and Agriculture 2024: Value-driven transformation of agrifood systems. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cd2616en

iii.

iv.

BOX 1.2 | YOUTH AGENCY

DeJaeghere, J.G., McCleary, K.S. & Josić, J. 2016. Conceptualizing youth agency. In: J.G. DeJaeghere, J. Josić & K.S. McCleary, eds. Education and youth agency. pp. 1–24. Advancing Responsible Adolescent Development. Cham, Switzerland, Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-33344-1_1

ii.

Glover, D. & Sumberg, J. 2020. Youth and food systems transformation. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 4. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2020.00101

iii.

iv.

Honwana, A. 2012. The time of youth: Work, social change, and politics in Africa. Boulder, CO, Lynne Rienner Publishers. www.rienner.com/title/The_Time_of_Youth_Work_Social_Change_and_Politics_in_Africa

Whitehead, K., Keshet, M., Lombrowski, B., Domenico, A. & Green, D. 2007. Definition and accountability: A youth perspective. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 77(3): 348–349. https://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.77.3.348

vi.

Rao, N. 2015. Transnational remittances and gendered status enhancement in rural Bangladesh. In: L.A. Hoang & B.S.A. Yeoh, eds. Transnational labour migration, remittances and the changing family in Asia. pp. 27–49. London, Palgrave Macmillan UK. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137506863_2

vii.

Punch, S. 2002. Youth transitions and interdependent adult–child relations in rural Bolivia. Journal of Rural Studies, 18(2): 123–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0743-0167(01)00034-1

viii.

Zimmerman, L.A., Li, M., Moreau, C., Wilopo, S. & Blum, R. 2019. Measuring agency as a dimension of empowerment among young adolescents globally; findings from the Global Early Adolescent Study. SSM – Population Health, 8: 100454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2019.100454

ix.

White, B. 2012. Indonesian rural youth transitions: Employment, mobility and the future of agriculture. In: A. Booth & C. Manning, eds. Land, livelihood, the economy, and the environment in Indonesia. Jakarta, Yayasan Pustaka Obor.

SPOTLIGHT 1.1 | GENERATIONAL RENEWAL IN AGRICULTURE: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DECLINING YOUTH POPULATIONS

UNDESA. 2024. World Population Prospects – 2024 Revision. United Nations. New York, USA. [Cited 7 August 2024]. https://population.un.org/wpp

ii.

Eurostat. 2022. Farmers and the agricultural labour force – statistics. European Union. Brussels. [Cited 5 March 2025]. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Farmers_and_the_agricultural_labour_force_-_statistics

iii.

Bunyasiri, I., Suchato, R. & Sirisupluxana, P. 2024. Adaptation of rice farmers to aging in Thailand. Open Agriculture, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1515/opag-2022-0364

iv.

Jansuwan, P. & Zander, K.K. 2021. What to do with the farmland? Coping with ageing in rural Thailand. Journal of Rural Studies, 81: 37–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2020.12.003

vi.

vii.

Chiswell, H.M. & Lobley, M. 2018. "It's definitely a good time to be a farmer": Understanding the changing dynamics of successor creation in late modern society. Rural Sociology, 83(3): 630–653. https://doi.org/10.1111/ruso.12205

viii.

Koczberski, G. & Curry, G.N. 2017. Changing generational values and new masculinities amongst smallholder export cash crop producers in Papua New Guinea. In: A. Biersack & M. Macintyre, eds. Emergent masculinities in the Pacific. Abingdon-on-Thames, UK, Routledge.

ix.

Borda, Á.J., Sárvári, B. & Balogh, J.M. 2023. Generation change in agriculture: A systematic review of the literature. Economies, 11(5): 129. https://doi.org/10.3390/economies11050129

Brandth, B. & Overrein, G. 2013. Resourcing children in a changing rural context: Fathering and farm succession in two generations of farmers. Sociologia Ruralis, 53(1): 95–111. https://doi.org/10.1111/soru.12003

xi.

Satoła, Ł. 2019. Problems of the aging of the farmers' population in small farms in Poland. Scientific Papers. Series "Management, Economic Engineering in Agriculture and Rural Development", 19(4). https://managementjournal.usamv.ro/pdf/vol.19_4/Art41.pdf

xii.

Lorenzen, R.P. 2015. Disintegration, formalisation or reinvention? Contemplating the future of Balinese irrigated rice societies. The Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology, 16(2): 176–193. https://doi.org/10.1080/14442213.2014.1000953

xiii.

Lorenzen, R.P. & Lorenzen, S. 2011. Changing realities–perspectives on Balinese rice cultivation. Human Ecology, 39(1): 29–42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-010-9345-z

xiv.

Swindell, K. 2019. Faith, work, farming and business: The role of the spiritual in West African livelihoods. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 54(6): 819–837. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909619840754

xv.

Mohanty, B.B. & Lenka, P.K. 2023. "For them farming may be the last resort, but for us it is a new hope": Ageing, youth and farming in India. Journal of Agrarian Change, 23(4): 771–791. https://doi.org/10.1111/joac.12538

xvi.

Ansell, N., Froerer, P., Huijsmans, R., Dungey, C., Dost, A. & Piti. 2020. Educating "surplus population": Uses and abuses of aspiration in the rural peripheries of a globalising world. Fennia – International Journal of Geography, 198(1–2). https://doi.org/10.11143/fennia.90756

xvii.

xviii.

Steward, A. 2007. Nobody farms here anymore: Livelihood diversification in the Amazonian community of Carvão, a historical perspective. Agriculture and Human Values, 24(1): 75–92. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-006-9032-2

xix.

Downey, H., Threlkeld, G. & Warburton, J. 2017. What is the role of place identity in older farming couples' retirement considerations? Journal of Rural Studies, 50: 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2016.12.006

xx.

Mariwah, S., Evans, R. & Antwi, K.B. 2019. Gendered and generational tensions in increased land commercialisation: Rural livelihood diversification, changing land use, and food security in Ghana's Brong-Ahafo region. Geo: Geography and Environment, 6(1): e00073. https://doi.org/10.1002/geo2.73

xxi.

Dhanya, P., Ramachandran, A. & Palanivelu, K. 2022. Understanding the local perception, adaptation to climate change and resilience planning among the farmers of semi-arid tracks of South India. Agricultural Research, 11(2): 291–308. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40003-021-00560-0

xxii.

Conway, S.F., Farrell, M., McDonagh, J. & Kinsella, A., eds. 2020. Mobilising land mobility in the European Union: An under-researched phenomenon. International Journal of Agricultural Management, 9: 7–11. https://doi.org/10.22004/ag.econ.329795

xxiii.

Ramos, G. 2005. The continuity of family agriculture and the succession system: The Basque case. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 36(3): 367–375. https://doi.org/10.3138/jcfs.36.3.367

xxiv.

Yamashita, R. & Morisawa, K. 2020. Consideration of qualitative changes in agricultural settlements due to land consolidation. International Review for Spatial Planning and Sustainable Development, 8(1): 124–136. https://doi.org/10.14246/irspsda.8.1_124

xxv.

Zagata, L., Hrabák, J., Lošťák, M., Bavorová, M., Ratinger, T., Sutherland, L-A. & McKee, A. 2017. Research for AGRI Committee – Young farmers – Policy implementation after the 2013 CAP reform. Brussels, Directorate General for Internal Policies, Policy Department B, Structural and Cohesion Policies. https://policycommons.net/artifacts/2055360/research-for-agri-committee/2808451

xxvi.

Eco Ruralis. 2016. Farm succession in Romania: Who will take over the lands from an aging peasant population? Cluj, Romania, Asociaţia Eco Ruralis.

xxvii.

xxviii.

Rigg, J., Salamanca, A. & Thompson, E.C. 2016. The puzzle of East and Southeast Asia's persistent smallholder. Journal of Rural Studies, 43: 118–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2015.11.003

xxix.

Heider, K., Rodriguez Lopez, J.M., Balbo, A.L. & Scheffran, J. 2021. The state of agricultural landscapes in the Mediterranean: Smallholder agriculture and land abandonment in terraced landscapes of the Ricote Valley, southeast Spain. Regional Environmental Change, 21(1): 23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-020-01739-x

CHAPTER 2

BOX 2.1 | FORCED DISPLACEMENT

UNHCR. 2024. Global Trends: Forced displacement in 2023. Geneva. https://www.unhcr.org/global-trends

ii.

IDMC. https://api.internal-displacement.org/sites/default/files/publications/documents/IDMC_GRID_2022_LR.pdf

iii.

Cazabat, C. 2019. Becoming an adult in internal displacement: Key figures, challenges, and opportunities for internally displaced youth. Geneva, Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre.

BOX 2.2 | YOUTH MIGRATION TO EUROPE — MIGRANT CHARACTERISTICS AND KEY MIGRATION DETERMINANTS

BOX 2.3 | SPATIAL PATTERNS OF YOUTH MIGRATION IN WEST AND EAST AFRICA

Ingelaere, B., Christiaensen, L., De Weerdt, J. & Kanbur, R. 2018. Why secondary towns can be important for poverty reduction – a migrant perspective. World Development, 105: 273–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.12.025

ii.

Cattaneo, A., Nelson, A. & McMenomy, T. 2021. Global mapping of urban-rural catchment areas reveals unequal access to services. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 118(2): e2011990118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2011990118

iii.

Cattaneo, A., Nelson, A. & McMenomy, T. 2021. In: FAO Agro-informatics Data Catalog Portal: Global Urban Rural Catchment Areas (URCA) Grid – 2021. [Cited 11 July 2023]. https://data.apps.fao.org/catalog/iso/9dc31512-a438-4b59-acfd-72830fbd6943

iv.

FAO. 2018. The State of Food and Agriculture 2018. Migration, agriculture and rural development. Rome. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/i9549en

Young, A. 2013. Inequality, the urban-rural gap, and migration. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 128(4): 1727–1785.

vi.

Mueller, V. & Lee, H.L. 2019. Can migration be a conduit for transformative youth employment? In: V. Mueller & J. Thurlow, eds. Youth and jobs in Rural Africa: Beyond stylized facts. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198848059.003.0002

vii.

Becerra-Valbuena, L.G. & Millock, K. 2021. Gendered migration responses to drought in Malawi. Journal of Demographic Economics, 87(3): 437–477. https://doi.org/10.1017/dem.2021.8

viii.

Dillon, A., Mueller, V. & Salau, S. 2011. Migratory responses to agricultural risk in Northern Nigeria. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 93(4): 1048–1061. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajae/aar033

ix.

Gray, C. & Mueller, V. 2012. Drought and population mobility in rural Ethiopia. World Development, 40(1): 134–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2011.05.023

BOX 2.4 | YOUTH TEMPORARY AND SEASONAL MIGRATION

Martin-Gutierrez, S., Borondo, J., Morales, A.J., Losada, J.C., Tarquis, A.M. & Benito, R.M. 2016. Agricultural activity shapes the mobility patterns in Senegal. Conference presentation at 2016 IEEE/ACM International Conference on Advances in Social Networks Analysis and Mining (ASONAM), August 2016. https://doi.org/10.1109/ASONAM.2016.7752303

ii.

Gubert, F. & Blanchard, P. 2024. Temporary migration response to rainy season conditions in Senegal: New evidence using mobile phone data. LISER, Policy Brief 02. https://liser.elsevierpure.com/fr/publications/temporary-migration-response-to-rainy-season-conditions-in-senega

iii.

Delaunay, V., Engeli, E., Franzetti, R., Golay, G., Moullet, A. & Sauvain-Dugerdil, C. 2016. La migration temporaire des jeunes au Sénégal [Temporary migration of young people to Senegal]. Afrique contemporaine, 259(3): 75–94.

iv.

Keshri, K. & Bhagat, R.B. 2010. Temporary and seasonal migration in India. Genus, 66(3): 25–45.

Banerjee, A.V. & Duflo, E. 2007. The economic lives of the poor. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 21(1): 141–167.

vi.

Parida, J.K. & Madheswaran, S. 2011. Determinants of migration and remittance in India: Empirical evidence. Bengaluru, India, Institute for Social and Economic Change. http://203.200.22.244/WP%20272%20-%20Jajati%20Keshari%20Parida_2.pdf

vii.

Dagbeto, G.S., Ndiga, B. & Muiruri, Z.K. 2024. Seasonal migration and youth social life in the Eastern Barienou district, Benin. International Journal of Science and Research Archive, 13(1): 2636–2647.

viii.

de Menezes, M. A., da Silva, M. S. & Cover, M. 2012. Migrant workers in sugarcane mills: A study of social networks and recruitment intermediaries in Brazil. Agrarian South: Journal of Political Economy, 1(2): 161–180.

ix.

Bardomás, S.M. 2012. La migración estacional a producciones agrarias de un área de Argentina: el Valle de Uco, provincia de Mendoza [Seasonal migration to agricultural production in an area of Argentina: The Uco Valley, Mendoza province]. Papeles de población, 18(72): 39–62.

Martin, P.L. 2016. Migrant workers in commercial agriculture. Geneva, ILO.

xi.

Tacoli, C. & Mabala, R. 2010. Exploring mobility and migration in the context of rural–urban linkages: Why gender and generation matter. Environment and Urbanization, 22(2): 389–395. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247810379935

xii.

Berckmoes, L. & White, B. 2014. Youth, farming and precarity in rural Burundi. European Journal of Development Research, 26(2): 190–203. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-55623-3_13

xiii.

Bonnassieux, A. & Gangneron, F. 2017. The role of seasonal and pluri-annual migration in reducing vulnerability: Hombori and Djougou districts. In: B. Sultan, R. Lalou, M.A. Sanni, A. Oumarou & M. Arame Soumaré, eds. Rural societies in the face of climatic and environmental changes in West Africa. pp. 253–268. Marseille, France, IRD Éditions. https://doi.org/10.4000/books.irdeditions.12367

xiv.

Asefawu, G.S. 2022. Seasonal migration and household food security status in the drought-prone areas of Northeast Ethiopia. Environmental Challenges, 8: 100566. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2022.100566

xv.

FAO. 2023. Gender roles related to work burden and child labour in agriculture in Punjab. Islamabad. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/cd1160en

xvi.

FAO. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/CB7360EN

xvii.

Sauvain-Dugerdil, C. 2013. Youth mobility in an isolated Sahelian population of Mali. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 648(1): 160–174. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716213485352

xviii.

Zuccotti, C.V., Geddes, A., Bacchi, A., Nori, M. & Stojanov, R. 2018. Drivers and patterns of rural youth migration and its impact on food security and rural livelihoods in Tunisia. Rome, FAO; Florence, Italy, Migration Policy Centre. https://cadmus.eui.eu/handle/1814/53724

CHAPTER 3

BOX 3.1 | YOUTH REPRESENTATION IN FORMAL POLITICAL PROCESSES

Inter-Parliamentary Union. 2024. Youth participation in national parliaments: 2023. Geneva. [Cited 15 November 2024]. https://www.ipu.org/resources/publications/reports/2023-10/youth-participation-in-national-parliaments-2023

ii.

Akram-Lodhi, A.H. & Huijsmans, R. 2024. Conclusion: Youth aspirations, trajectories, and farming futures. In: S. Srinivasan, ed. Becoming a young farmer: Young people's pathways into farming: Canada, China, India and Indonesia. pp. 415–433. Cham, Switzerland, Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-15233-7_15

iii.

Augsberger, A., Collins, M.E., Gecker, W. & Dougher, M. 2018. Youth civic engagement: Do youth councils reduce or reinforce social inequality? Journal of Adolescent Research, 33(2): 187–208. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558416684957

iv.

vi.

IFAD. 2019. 2019 Rural Development Report: Creating opportunities for rural youth. Rome. https://www.ifad.org/ruraldevelopmentreport

vii.

Mohamed, F.A.E. 2011. The determinants of political participation of rural youth: A comparative study between male and female youth in Menoufiya Governorate. Arab Universities Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 19(1): 39–85. https://doi.org/10.21608/ajs.2011.14522

viii.

The Body Shop & United Nations Office of the Secretary-General’s Envoy on Youth. 2022. Be Seen Be Heard Global Youth Report. New York, USA. https://futuranetwork.eu/public/oltreil2030/files/Documenti_news/
UN_REPORT_TBS_ACCESSIBLE.16c38f81bbe6646c5daf.pdf

ix.

CIRCLE. 2024. Lack of civic support for rural youth may lead to lower civic engagement. Medford, MA. [Cited 3 April 2025]. https://circle.tufts.edu/latest-research/lack-civic-support-rural-youth-may-lead-lower-civic-engagement

Kari, A.G.U., Mshelia, I.H. & Badmus, B.A. 2024. Prioritising rural youth participation in democratic governance for sustainable development in Nigeria. European Economic Letters (EEL), 14(2): 3045–3053.

xi.

Oosterom, M. 2018. Youth engagement in the realm of local governance: Opportunities for peace? [Cited 11 December 2024]. www.ids.ac.uk/publications/youth-engagement-in-the-realm-of-local-governance-opportunities-for-peace

BOX 3.2 | EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF YOUNG MIGRANTS, REFUGEES AND INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSONS (IDPS)

De Haas, H. 2021. A theory of migration: The aspirations-capabilities framework. Comparative Migration Studies, 9(1): 8.

ii.

OECD. 2018. The resilience of students with an immigrant background: Factors that shape well-being. OECD Reviews of Migrant Education. Paris, OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264292093-en

iii.

Miller, K. 2016. Education across borders: The relationship between age at migration and educational attainment for Mexico-US child migrants. Teachers College Record, 118(1): 1–48.

iv.

Azizi, S. 2018. The impacts of workers' remittances on human capital and labor supply in developing countries. Economic Modelling, 75: 377–396. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2018.07.011

Zhao, F. & Yu, G. 2016. Parental migration and rural left-behind children's mental health in China: A meta-analysis based on mental health test. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25(12): 3462–3472. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0517-3

vi.

Fellmeth, G., Rose-Clarke, K., Zhao, C., Busert, L.K., Zheng, Y., Massazza, A., Sonmez, H. et al. 2018. Health impacts of parental migration on left-behind children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet, 392(10164): 2567–2582. www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(18)32558-3/fulltext

vii.

UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees). 2025. Refugee Data Finder. Geneva. [Cited 22 March 2025]. https://www.unhcr.org/refugee-statistics

viii.

UNHCR. 2023. Unlocking potential: The right to education and opportunity. New York, USA. https://www.unhcr.org/media/unhcr-education-report-2023-unlocking-potential-right-education-and-opportunity

BOX 3.3 | YOUTH-HEADED HOUSEHOLDS

Chacaltana Janampa, J., Elder, S. & Lee, M. 2019. Youth transitions and lifetime trajectory. ILO Working Paper No. 253, Geneva, ILO. www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/wcmsp5/groups/public/%40ed_emp/
%40ifp_skills/documents/publication/wcms_734499.pdf

ii.

Boris N.W., Brown L.A., Thurman T.R., Rice, J.C., Snider, L.M., Ntaganira, J. & Nyirazinyoye, L.N. 2008. Depressive symptoms in youth heads of household in Rwanda: Correlates and implications for intervention. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 162(9): 836–843. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/380131

iii.

Thurman, T.R., Snider, L.A., Boris, N.W., Kalisa, E., Nyirazinyoye, L. & Brown, L. 2008. Barriers to the community support of orphans and vulnerable youth in Rwanda. Social Science & Medicine, 66(7): 1557–1567. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.12.001

iv.

Ntuli, B., Sebola, E. & Madiba, S. 2020. Responding to maternal loss: A phenomenological study of older orphans in youth-headed households in impoverished areas of South Africa. Healthcare, 8(3): 259. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare8030259

Maila, K.S. & Mabasa, L.T. 2023. Exploring the school-based support for youths who head households in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Youth & Society, 55(3): 399–419. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X21105667

vi.

Couter, T.R., Matsipane, M.J. & Bam, E.N. 2024. Challenges faced by HIV/AIDS-orphaned youth in household headship: A qualitative study in Ngaka Modiri Molema, North West Province. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5440403/v1

vii.

Kidido, J.K. & Lengoiboni, M. 2019. Household land allocations and the youth land access nexus: Evidence from the Techiman Area of Ghana. Land, 8(12): 185. https://doi.org/10.3390/land8120185

viii.

Aragaw, F.M., Teklu, R.E., Belay, D.G., Negash, W.D., Fetene, S.M., Alemu, T.G., Eshetu, H.B. et al. 2023. Individual and community level predictors of women's autonomy in health care decision-making among youth in East African countries: A multilevel analysis. BMJ open, 13(6): e066975. https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/13/6/e066975

SPOTLIGHT 3.1 | AGRI-DIGITAL FINANCIAL SERVICES FOR YOUNG FARMERS AND AGRIPRENEURS

Demirgüç-Kunt, A., Klapper, L., Singer, D., Ansar, S. & Hess, J.R. 2017. The Global Findex Database 2017: Measuring financial inclusion and the fintech revolution. Washington, DC, World Bank https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/332881525873182837/pdf/126033-PUB-PUBLIC-pubdate-4-19-2018.pdf

ii.

UNCDF. 2017. Demand-side research for youth financial services in the Gambia. New York, USA. https://www.uncdf.org/article/3766/youth-financial-services-in-the-gambia

iii.

Aligishiev, Z. & Gravesteijn, R. 2020. Youth entrepreneurs engaging in the digital economy: The next generation. New York, USA, UNDP, UNCDF. www.undp.org/publications/youth-entrepreneurs-engaging-digital-economy-next-generation

iv.

Anderson, J., Karuppusamy, R., Enrico Neumann, P. & Thangavel, V. 2018. High-saving youth in smallholder households: An untapped market. Policy Brief. Washington, DC, CGAP. www.cgap.org/research/publication/high-saving-youth-in-smallholder-households-untapped-market

Demirgüç-Kunt, A., Klapper, L., Singer, D. & Ansar, S. 2022. The Global Findex Database 2021: Financial inclusion, digital payments, and resilience in the age of COVID-19. Washington, DC, World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1897-4

vi.

Phatty-Jobe, A. 2020. Digital agriculture maps. GSMA AgriTech Programme. London, GSMA. www.gsma.com/r/digital-agriculture-maps

vii.

CGAP. 2019. Infographic: High-saving youth in smallholder households. London. https://www.cgap.org/research/infographic/infographic-high-saving-youth-in-smallholder-households

viii.

Barooah, B., Kaushish, B., Puri, J. & Leach, B. 2017. Understanding financial agricultural risk for smallholder farmers in developing countries. What do we know and not know? Evidence Gap Map Report 9. Washington, DC, International Initiative for Impact Evaluation (3ie). https://3ieimpact.org/sites/default/files/2018-02/egm9-ag-risk.pdf

ix.

Shakhovskoy, M., Pshenichnaya, N., Lozano, M., Robertson, M. & Pulvermacher, K. 2022. State of the sector: Agri-insurance for smallholder farmers. A global stocktake of an evolving industry. ISF advisors, Microinsurance Network. https://isfadvisors.org/state-of-the-sector-agri-insurance-for-smallholder-farmers

Solve. 2023. ThriveAgric – Agriculture Operating System. In: MIT Solve. Cambridge, MA. [Cited 7 March 2025]. https://solve.mit.edu/solutions/70957

xi.

Engström, E., Gupta, T., Burgaz, C., Hegwood, M., Hidayah, I., Shaikh, A.M., Iheme, G. et al. 2024. Digital technologies for multidimensional youth engagement in agrifood systems transformation. Rome, FAO & WFF. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/cd2715en

xii.

ThriveAgric. 2023. Breaking the barriers. Impact Report. Abuja, Nigeria. https://thriveagric.com/resources/hectare/breaking-the-barriers-our-2023-impact-story

xiii.

Ayute Africa. 2022. ThriveAgric: Building Africa’s largest network of productive, profitable farmers. In: AYuTe Africa Challenge. Abuja, Nigeria. [Cited 6 March 2025]. https://ayute.africa/champions/2023/thriveagric

xiv.

Buchenau, J., Benni, N. & Cungu, A. 2024. Enabling markets of financial services for the rural youth. Rome, Italy; Bonn, Germany, FAO, GIZ. https://doi.org/10.4060/cd3509en

xv.

Safaricom. www.safaricom.co.ke/sustainabilityreport_2024

xvi.

Kioko, L. 2019. Youth in agriculture: A new generation leverages technology. Mercy Corps, 23 July 2019. [Cited 7 March 2025]. https://mercycorpsagrifin.org/youth-in-agriculture-a-new-generation-leverages-technology

xvii.

Benni, N., Berno, D. & Cungu, A. 2022. Promoting access to agricultural finance for youth in developing countries. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc2868en

xviii.

Duc, T.T.V. 2025. Key players in Indonesia's agritech map falter as funding falls. In: Tech in Asia. [Cited 7 March 2025]. www.techinasia.com/visual-story/key-players-indonesias-agritech-map-falter-funding-falls

xix.

Glavanits, J. & Szabo, T. 2024. FinTech solutions supporting sustainable agriculture. Lessons from Africa. In: Proceedings of the Central and Eastern European eDem and eGov Days 2024. CEEeGov '24, New York, Association for Computing Machinery, 12 September 2024. https://doi.org/10.1145/3670243.3672435

SPOTLIGHT 3.2 | YOUTH WITH DISABILITIES

United Nations. 2006. Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, Article 1. Adopted 12 December 2006 by the Sixty-first session of the General Assembly by resolution A/RES/61/106. New York, USA. https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/convention-rights-persons-disabilities

ii.

Ebuenyi, I.D., Regeer, B. J., Nthenge, M., Nardodkar, R., Waltz, M. & Bunders-Aelen, J.F. 2019. Legal and policy provisions for reasonable accommodation in employment of persons with mental disability in East Africa: A review. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 64: 99–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlp.2019.02.007

iii.

Manderson, L. June 2004. Disability, global legislation and human rights. Development, 47(2): 35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.development.1100027

iv.

Banks, L.M., Kuper, H. & Polack, S. 2017. Poverty and disability in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review. PLoS One, 12(12):e0189996. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0189996

Mailhot Amborski, A., Bussières, E.L., Vaillancourt-Morel, M.P. & Joyal, C.C. 2022. Sexual violence against persons with disabilities: A meta-analysis. Trauma Violence Abuse, 23(4):1330–1343. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380219959

vi.

UNDESA. 2024. Disability and Development Report 2024: Accelerating the realization of the Sustainable Development Goals by, for and with persons with disabilities. New York, USA. https://social.desa.un.org/publications/un-flagship-report-on-disability-and-development-2024

vii.

Coleman-Jensen, A., Rabbitt, M.P., Gregory, C.A. & Singh, A. 2017. Household food security in the United States in 2017. Economic Research Report 256. Washington, DC, USDA. https://ers.usda.gov/sites/default/files/_laserfiche/publications/90023/ERR-256.pdf?v=24059

viii.

Stott, G.N., Taetzsch, A. & Morrell, J.S. 2023. College students with disabilities report higher rates of food insecurity. Disability and Health Journal, 16(4):101485. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dhjo.2023.101485

ix.

Swenor, B.K. 2021. Disability inclusion: A missing ingredient for food system equity. Global Food Security, 31: 100584. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2021.100584

Kuper, H., Hameed, S., Reichenberger, V., Scherer, N., Wilbur, J., Zuurmond, M., Mactaggart, I. et al. 2021. Participatory research in disability in low-and middle-income countries: What have we learnt and what should we do? Scandinavian Journal of Disability Research, 23(1): 328–337. https://doi.org/10.16993/sjdr.814

xi.

WHO. 2022. Global report on health equity for persons with disabilities. Geneva. https://www.who.int/health-topics/disability

xii.

UNDESA. 2011. Fact Sheet: Youth with disabilities. New York, USA. https://social.un.org/youthyear/docs/Fact%20sheet%20youth%20with%20disabilities.pdf

xiii.

UNESCO & UNESCO Institute for Statistics. 2018. Education and disability: Analysis of data from 49 countries. Information Paper 49. Paris, UNESCO Publishing. https://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/ip49-education-disability-2018-en.pdf

xiv.

UNDESA. n.d. Youth with disabilities. New York, USA. www.un.org/development/desa/youth/youth-with-disabilities.html#:~:text=Estimates%20suggest%20that%20there%20are,or%20her%20family%20and%20community

xv.

Chappell, P. & Lorenzo, T. 2012. Exploring capacity for disability-inclusive development. In T. Lorenzo, ed. Marrying community development and rehabilitation: Reality or aspiration for disabled people. Disability Catalyst Africa Series 2. pp. 5–35. Cape Town, Megadigital.

CHAPTER 4

BOX 4.1 | YOUTH EMPLOYMENT AND WORK IN AGRIFOOD SYSTEMS: METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND DATA

ILO. 2013. Report I. General report: 19th International Conference of Labour Statisticians, Geneva, 2–11 October 2013. https://tinyurl.com/adu9sxjp

ii.

iii.

FAO. 2023. The Status of Women in Agrifood Systems. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc5343en

iv.

Kafle, K., Paliwal, N. & Benfica, R. 2024. Do youth work in agriculture? Short-term dynamics of on-farm rural youth employment in Tanzania and Malawi. The Journal of Development Studies: 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2024.2420019

FAO. 2024. The State of Food and Agriculture 2024. Rome. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/cd2616en

vi.

vii.

ILO. 2023. ILO estimates based on ILO modelled estimates, November 2023.

viii.

ILO. ILO Harmonized Microdata. https://ilostat.ilo.org/

BOX 4.2 | GENDER PAY GAPS AMONG YOUTH

de Brauw, A., Kramer, B. & Murphy, M. 2021. Migration, labor and women's empowerment: Evidence from an agricultural value chain in Bangladesh. World Development, 142: 105445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105445

ii.

Kruijssen, F., McDougall, C.L. & van Asseldonk, I.J.M. 2018. Gender and aquaculture value chains: A review of key issues and implications for research. Aquaculture, 493: 328–337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2017.12.038

iii.

FAO. 2023. The status of women in agrifood systems. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc5343en

iv.

Benali, M., Slavchevska, V., Piedrahita, N., Davis, B., Sitko, N., Azzarri, C., Le, D.T. & Kluth, J. 2025. The agrifood-system wage gap and structural transformation: Cross country evidence. Global Food Security, 46: 100851. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2025.100851

Fabry, A., Van den Broeck, G. & Maertens, M. 2022. Decent work in global food value chains: Evidence from Senegal. World Development, 152: 105790. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105790

vi.

Mahajan, K. 2017. Rainfall shocks and the gender wage gap: Evidence from Indian Agriculture. World Development, 91: 156–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.11.004

vii.

Fisher, M., Lewin, P.A. & Pilgeram, R. 2022. Farmworkers and the gender wage gap: An empirical analysis of wage inequality in US agriculture. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, 44(4): 2145–2163. https://doi.org/10.1002/aepp.13202

viii.

Van den Broeck, G., Kilic, T. & Pieters, J. 2023. Structural transformation and the gender pay gap in Sub-Saharan Africa. PLOS ONE, 18(4): 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0278188

ix.

Hertz, T., Winters, P., Quiñones, E.J., Davis, B. & Zezza, A. 2008. Wage Inequality in International Perspective: Effects of Location, Sector, and Gender. ESA Working Paper. No. 08-08. Rome, FAO.

Oaxaca, R. 1973. Male-female wage differentials in urban labor markets. International Economic Review, 14(3): 693–709. https://doi.org/10.2307/2525981

xi.

Blinder, A.S. 1973. Wage discrimination: Reduced form and structural estimates. The Journal of Human Resources, 8(4): 436–455. https://doi.org/10.2307/144855

xii.

Kitagawa, E.M. 1955. Components of a difference between two rates*. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 50(272): 1168–1194. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1955.10501299

xiii.

Brooks, K., Zorya, S., Gautam, A. & Goyal, A. 2013. Agriculture as a Sector of Opportunity for Young People in Africa. Policy Research Working Papers. Washington, DC, World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-6473

BOX 4.3 | GAPS IN WORK-RELATED SOCIAL INSURANCE AND BENEFITS

ILO. 2013. Decent work indicators. Guidelines for producers and users of statistical and legal framework indicators. Geneva.

ii.

Desai, R.M. & Rudra, N. 2019. Trade, poverty, and social protection in developing countries. European Journal of Political Economy 60 (1 December 2019): 101744. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2018.08.008

iii.

Mabiso, A. & Benfica, R. 2019. The narrative on rural youth and economic opportunities in Africa: Facts, myths and gaps. IFAD Research Series 61(2019): 78.

SPOTLIGHT 4.1 | IN LOW- AND LOWER-MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES, YOUTH ENGAGEMENT IN AGRIFOOD SYSTEMS DEPENDS ON THE SPACES IN WHICH THEY LIVE

Hazell, P., Haggblade, S. & Reardon, T. 2024. Transformation of the rural nonfarm economy during rapid urbanization and structural transformation in developing regions. Annual Review of Resource Economics. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-resource-101623-105713

ii.

Reardon, T., Tschirley, D., Minten, B., Haggblade, S., Liverpool-Tasie, L.S., Dolislager, M., Snyder, J. et al. 2015. Transformation of African agrifood systems in the new era of rapid urbanization and the emergence of a middle class. In: O. Badiane & T. Makombe, eds. Beyond a middle income Africa: Transforming African economies for sustained growth with rising employment and incomes. ReSAKSS Annual Trends and Outlook Report 2014. Washington, DC, International Food Policy Research Institute.

iii.

iv.

Cattaneo, A., Adukia, A., Brown, D.L., Christiaensen, L., Evans, D.K., Haakenstad, A., McMenomy, T. et al. 2022. Economic and social development along the urban–rural continuum: New opportunities to inform policy. World Development, 157: 105941. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2022.105941

vi.

Abay, K.A., Asnake, W., Ayalew, H., Chamberlin, J. & Sumberg, J. 2020. Landscapes of opportunity: patterns of young people's engagement with the rural economy in sub-Saharan Africa. The Journal of Development Studies: 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2020.1808195

vii.

Arslan, A., Tschirley, D.L. & Egger, E-M. 2021. Rural youth welfare along the rural-urban gradient: An empirical analysis across the developing world. The Journal of Development Studies, 57(4): 544–570.

viii.

Diao, X., Magalhaes, E. & Silver, J. 2019. Cities and rural transformation: A spatial analysis of rural livelihoods in Ghana. World Development, 121: 141–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.05.001

ix.

Amare, M., Abay, K.A. & Chamberlin, J. 2023. The role of spatial inequalities on youth migration decisions: Empirical evidence from Nigeria. The Journal of Development Studies, 59(6): 911–932. https://doi.org/10/gr82pc

IFAD. 2019. 2019 Rural Development Report. Creating opportunities for rural youth. Rome. www.ifad.org/ruraldevelopmentreport

xi.

Dinkelman, T. & Ngai, L.R. 2022. Time use and gender in Africa in times of structural transformation. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 36(1): 57–80. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.36.1.57

xii.

Jayachandran, S. 2021. Social norms as a barrier to women's employment in developing countries. IMF Economic Review, 69(3): 576–595. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41308-021-00140-w

xiii.

FAO. 2023. The Status of Women in Agrifood Systems. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc5343en

xiv.

ILO. 2024. Global Employment Trends for Youth 2024. Decent work, brighter futures. Geneva.

xv.

Dolislager, M., Reardon, T., Arslan, A., Fox, L., Liverpool-Tasie, S., Sauer, C. & Tschirley, D.L. 2020. Youth and adult agrifood system employment in developing regions: Rural (peri-urban to hinterland) vs. urban. The Journal of Development Studies, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2020.1808198

xvi.

xvii.

FAO. 2023. RuLIS – Rural Livelihoods Information System. [Cited 5 December 2023]. www.fao.org/in-action/rural-livelihoodsdataset-rulis/en

SPOTLIGHT 4.2 | CHILD LABOUR AMONG THE 15–17 COHORT

FAO. 2020. FAO framework on ending child labour in agriculture. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9502en

ii.

Paus, T., Zijdenbos, A., Worsley, K., Collins, D.L., Blumenthal, J., Giedd, J.N., Rapoport, J.L. et al. 1999. Structural maturation of neural pathways in children and adolescents: In vivo study. Science, 283(5409): 1908–1911. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.283.5409.1908

iii.

Sawyer, S.M., Azzopardi, P.S., Wickremarathne, D. & Patton, G.C. 2018. The age of adolescence. The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health, 2(3): 223–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(18)30022-1

iv.

FAO & ILO. 2021. Tackling child labour through decent youth employment in agri-food systems. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb7441e

United Nations. 1973. Convention C138 – Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138) adopted 26 June 1973 by the General Conference of the International Labour Organization at its fifty-eighth session, New York, USA. www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/minimum-age-convention-1973-no-138

vi.

ILO. 1999. Convention C182 – Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182). Geneva. www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_norm/
@declaration/documents/publication/wcms_decl_fs_46_en.pdf

vii.

Thévenon, O. & Edmonds, E. 2019. Child labour: Causes, consequences and policies to tackle it. OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers 235. Paris, OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/f6883e26-en

viii.

ILO & UNICEF. 2021. Child Labour: Global estimates 2020, trends and the road forward. New York, USA. www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_norm/
---ipec/documents/publication/wcms_797515.pdf

ix.

ILO. 2007. World Day Against Child Labour: 12 June 2017. An overview of child labour in agriculture. In: ILO and the International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour. New York, USA. [Cited 14 April 2025]. www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/wcmsp5/groups/public/@asia/@ro-bangkok/documents/publication/wcms_098346.pdf

Doss, C.R., Heckert, J., Myers, E., Pereira, A. & Quisumbing, A. 2020. Gender, rural youth and structural transformation: evidence to inform innovative youth programming. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3520616

xi.

Hossain, Md.M., Abdulla, F., Hai, A., Khan, M.T.F., Rahman, A. & Rahman, A. 2023. Exploring the prevalence, duration and determinants of participation in household chores among children aged 5–17 years in Bangladesh. Child Indicators Research, 16(5): 2107–2124. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-023-10051-z

xii.

FAO. 2022. The COVID-19 consequences on child labour in agrifood systems. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc2136en

xiii.

André, P., Delesalle, E. & Dumas, C. 2021. Returns to farm child labor in Tanzania. World Development, 138: 105181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105181

xiv.

Webbink, E., Smits, J. & de Jong, E. 2012. Hidden child labor: Determinants of housework and family business work of children in 16 developing countries. World Development, 40(3): 631–642. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2011.07.005

xv.

FAO, IFAD & ILO, eds. 2010. Gender dimensions of agricultural and rural employment: Differentiated pathways out of poverty: Status, trends and gaps. Geneva. www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/wcmsp5/groups/public/%40ed_emp/documents/publication/wcms_150558.pdf

xvi.

Chiodi, V. & Escudero, V. 2024. More is more: Combined livelihood-education interventions and their effect on child labour in the agricultural sector. Journal of Development Effectiveness, 17(1): 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/19439342.2024.2376559

xvii.

Kazianga, H., de Walque, D. & Alderman, H. 2012. Educational and child labour impacts of two food-for-education schemes: Evidence from a randomised trial in rural Burkina Faso. Journal of African Economies, 21(5): 723–760. https://doi.org/10.1093/jae/ejs010

SPOTLIGHT 4.3 | INDIGENOUS YOUTH'S WORK AND ACCESS TO ASSETS AND RESOURCES IN AGRIFOOD SYSTEMS

Dhir, R.K., Cattaneo, U., Cabrera Omarza, M.V., Coronado, H. & Oelz, M. 2019. Implementing the ILO indigenous and tribal peoples convention No. 169: Towards an inclusive, sustainable, and just future. Geneva, International Labour Organization. www.ilo.org/publications/implementing-ilo-indigenous-and-tribal-peoples-convention-no-169-towards

ii.

FAO. 2021. The White/Wiphala Paper on Indigenous Peoples' food systems. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb4932en

iii.

ILO. 2017. Decent Work for Indigenous and tribal peoples in the Rural Economy. Decent Work in the Rural Economy Guidance Notes. Geneva. www.ilo.org/publications/decent-work-indigenous-and-tribal-peoples-rural-economy

iv.

LAC Indigenous Youth Network. 2024. Vision and contributions of Indigenous Youth towards COP-16 of the Convention on Biological Diversity. La Paz, Fondo para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas de América Latina y El Caribe and Red de Jóvenes Indígenas de América Latina y el Caribe.

ILO. 2023. Traditional Occupations of Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Labour Statistics. Geneva. www.ilo.org/publications/traditional-occupations-indigenous-and-tribal-peoples-labour-statistics

vi.

Trakansuphakon, N. 2020. Pgaz K'Nyau community social enterprise as alternative livelihoods for young generations, Northern Thailand. Local Biodiversity Outlooks, 1 June 2020. [Cited 4 June 2025]. https://localbiodiversityoutlooks.net/pgaz-knyau-community-social-enterprise-as-alternative-livelihoods-for-young-generations-Northern-thailand

vii.

Van Uffelen, A., Tanganelli, E., Gerke, A., Bottigliero, F., Drieux, E., Fernández-de-Larrinoa, Y., Milbank, C. et al. 2021. Indigenous youth as agents of change – Actions of Indigenous youth in local food systems during times of adversity. Rome, FAO. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/9b9c4c3f-c370-4266-9c11-2a938e25fa04/content

viii.

Asselin, H. and Drainville, R. 2020. Are Indigenous youth in a tug-of-war between community and city? Reflections from a visioning workshop in the Lac Simon Anishnaabeg community (Quebec, Canada), World Development Perspectives, 17: 100168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wdp.2019.100168

ix.

Bruno, Ch., Bruno, C., Cruz, A., Moncada, S., Patterson, K., Rodriguez, B., Skene, D. et al. 2025. North American urban Indigenous food systems. Current Developments in Nutrition, 104542. https://cdn.nutrition.org/action/showPdf?pii=S2475-2991%2825%2900001-0

Intertribal Agriculture Council. 2025. Youth. In: Intertribal Agriculture Council. Billings, MT. [Cited 4 June 2025]. www.indianag.org/youth

xi.

Ostrowski, L. 2024. Bridging the worlds of traditional Indigenous knowledge and academia. In: Indigenous Research. [Cited 4 June 2025]. Edmonton, AB, University of Alberta, Arramat Project. www.ualberta.ca/en/impact/bridging-the-worlds-of-traditional-indigenous-knowledge-and-academia.html

xii.

Holley, S. 2024. Indigenous Alaskan Sustainable Community (IASC) Sustainable Village Design led by a village's story. 2024 Indigenous Communities Fellowship. In: MIT Solve. Cambridge, MA. [Cited 23 April 2024]. https://solve.mit.edu/solutions/90329

xiii.

FAO. 2025. UN Global Indigenous Youth Forum (UNGIYF). In: FAO. Rome. [Cited 4 June 2025]. www.fao.org/indigenous-peoples/secretariats/ungiyf/en

xiv.

Flores Cruz, R.M. 2024. Wind farms, access to land and territorial defence in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Knowledge Makers Journal, Special Edition: Indigenous Women, Indigenous Peoples' Food and Knowledge Systems, and Climate Action, 8: 77–84. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/cd3373en

xv.

Consultations (UNGIYF 2023, WFF 2022–2025) with Indigenous youth leaders/founders of the Koibatek Ogiek Women and Youth Network. Consultations (UNGIYF 2023) with Indigenous youth leaders from Namibia who are engaged with the Kaokoland Descendent Welfare Organization (KADEWO), and the Eastern and South Africa Pastoralist Network (ESAPN).

xvi.

Edwards, N. 2024. Implications of pastoral transformation from nomadic to sedentary livelihood systems among pastoral Indigenous (Maasai) on food security in the Kiteto District. Knowledge Makers Journal, Special Edition: Indigenous Women, Indigenous Peoples' Food and Knowledge Systems, and Climate Action, 8: 12–19. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/cd3373en

xvii.

Mohamed, G.I. 2024. Kel Tamashek's alimentary resilience in the face of climate change. Knowledge Makers Journal, Special Edition: Indigenous Women, Indigenous Peoples' Food and Knowledge Systems, and Climate Action, 8: 20-25. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/cd3373en

xviii.

Consultations (WFF 2022–2024, UNGIYF 2023, UNPFII 2025) with Saami Youth leaders and the International Centre for Reindeer Husbandry (ICR), referenced in Curry, T. 2019. Herding on Thin Ice – An Exercise in Resilience and Adaptive Strategy. https://reindeerherding.org/documents/category/5-articles-papers?download=37:herding-on-thin-ice-an-exercise-in-resilience-and-adaptive-strategy

xix.

Consultations (UNGIYF 2023, WFF 2024) with Inuit Youth leaders from Nunavut and Alaska, referenced in Behe, C. 2019. The role of providing – Inuit management practices: Youth, elders, active hunters and gatherers workshop report. Bethel, Alaska, Inuit Circumpolar Council. DOI:10.13140/RG.2.2.21286.19520

xx.

Zakharova, I. 2024. Reindeer herding: Keeping the Even culture alive and contributing to food security. Knowledge Makers Journal, Special Edition: Indigenous Women, Indigenous Peoples' Food and Knowledge Systems, and Climate Action, 8: 34–43. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/cd3373en

xxi.

Tambieva, M. 2024. Karachay and Balkar Indigenous Peoples zero-waste philosophy and lifestyle. Knowledge Makers Journal, Special Edition: Indigenous Women, Indigenous Peoples' Food and Knowledge Systems, and Climate Action, 8: 63–73. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/cd3373en

xxii.

Consultations (UNGIYF 2023, WFF 2024) with Ni-Vanuatu Indigenous Youth leaders.

xxiii.

Manoa, S. 2024. Q&A: Exploring indigenous knowledge to foster sustainable fishing practices. In: FFA Pacific Islands Forum Fisheries Agency Fisheries. [Cited 27 February 2024]. Honiara, Solomon Islands. www.ffa.int/2024/02/qa-exploring-indigenous-knowledge-to-foster-sustainable-fishing-practices

xxiv.

Consultations (WFF 2022, UNGIYF 2023, WFF 2024, UNPFII 2025) with Indigenous youth leaders from Australia, referenced in Thean, E. 2023. Harnessing cultural heritage for environmental conservation: Insights from Malachi Johnson. In: AWX. [Cited 23 August 2023]. Fortitude Valley, QL. www.awx.com.au/harnessing-cultural-heritage-for-environmental-conservation-insights-from-malachi-johnson

xxv.

Consultations (WFF 2022, UNGIYF 2023) with Indigenous Youth leaders from Hawai'i, referenced in Kamelamela, K.L, Kihalani Springer, H., Ku'ulei Keakealani, R., Ulu Ching, M., Ticktin, T., Dickens Ohara, R., Parsons, E.W. et al. 2022. Kōkua aku, Kōkua mai: An indigenous consensus-driven and place-based approach to community led dryland restoration and stewardship. Forest Ecology and Management, 506: 119949. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2021.119949

xxvi.

Walters, J. 2024. Chiefs of our Whenua. Knowledge Makers Journal, Special Edition: Indigenous Women, Indigenous Peoples' Food and Knowledge Systems, and Climate Action, 8: 133–138. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/cd3373en

xxvii.

Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. 2021. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Performance Framework. In: Australian Government. Canberra. [Cited 7 May 2025]. http://indigenoushpf.gov.au/measures/2-07-employment#:~:text=Based%20on%20the%202021%20Census,07.4

xxviii.

de Brey, C. Musu, L., McFarland, J., Wilkinson-Flicker, S., Diliberti, M., Zhang, A., Branstetter, C. et al. 2019. Status and trends in the education of racial and ethnic groups 2018. Washington, DC, National Center for Education Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/use-work/resource-library/report/compendium/status-and-trends-education-racial-and-ethnic-groups-2018?pubid=2019038

xxix.

US Department of Labor. 2019. Findings from the National Agricultural Workers Survey (NAWS) 2000–2009: Profiles of youth, parents, and children of farm workers in the United States. Washington, DC. https://www.dol.gov/sites/dolgov/files/ETA/naws/pdfs/NAWS_Research_Report_10.pdf

xxx.

xxxi.

World Bank. 2015. Indigenous Latin America in the twenty-first century. Washington, DC. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/145891467991974540/pdf/Indigenous-Latin-America-in-the-twenty-first-century-the-first-decade.pdf

xxxii.

Coneval (Consejo Nacional de Evaluación de la Política de Desarrollo Social). 2020. Avances y Retos del Programa Jóvenes Construyendo el Futuro [Progress and challenges of program for young people building the future]. Communicado no. 10, 9 July 2020. Mexico City. www.coneval.org.mx/SalaPrensa/Comunicadosprensa/Documents/2020/
Comunicado_10_JOVENES_CONSTRUYENDO_EL_FUTURO.pdf

xxxiii.

Cultural Survival. 2024. 48-3: Indigenous Education: Safeguarding Our Knowledge for Future Generations. Cultural Survival, 15 September 2024. www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/48-3-indigenous-education-safeguarding-our-knowledge

xxxiv.

Stewart, K. & Brady-Runsabove, C. 2024. Center us: A Native youth survey report. Washington, DC, The Aspen Institute, Center for Native American Youth. www.cnay.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Center-Us-Report-2024_FINAL-compressed.pdf

CHAPTER 5

BOX 5.1 | ADOLESCENT AND YOUTH PREGNANCY

Sully, E.A., Biddlecom, A., Darroch, J.E., Riley, T., Ashford, L.S., Lince-Deroche, N., Firestein, L. et al. 2020. Adding it up: Investing in sexual and reproductive health 2019. New York, USA, Guttmacher Institute. www.guttmacher.org/report/adding-it-up-investing-in-sexual-reproductive-health-2019

ii.

Pradhan, R., Wynter, K. & Fisher, J. 2015. Factors associated with pregnancy among adolescents in low-income and lower middle-income countries: A systematic review. Epidemiology and Community Health, 69(9): 918–924. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2014-205128

iii.

The Lancet. 2025. Dismantling barriers and biases against adolescent mothers. The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health, 9(5): 283. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(25)00105-1

iv.

Dev, A. & Rabi, B., Poobalan, A.S. & van Teijlingen, E.R. 2010. Factors associated with teenage pregnancy in South Asia: A systematic review. Health Science Journal, 4(1). www.researchgate.net/publication/228462180_Factors_associated
_with_teenage_pregnancy_in_South_Asia_A_systematic_review

UNICEF. 2021. Towards ending child marriage: Global trends and profiles of progress. New York, USA. https://data.unicef.org/resources/towards-ending-child-marriage

vi.

Sabet, F., Prost, A., Rahmanian, S., Al Qudah, H., Nogueira Cardoso, M. & Carlin, J.B. 2023. The forgotten girls: The state of evidence for health interventions for pregnant adolescents and their newborns in low-income and middle-income countries, Health Policy, 402(10412): 1580–1596. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(23)01682-3

vii.

Zambia Statistics Agency, Ministry of Health (MOH) Zambia and ICF. 2019. 2018 Zambia Demographic Health Survey Summary Report. Lusaka. https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/SR265/SR265.pdf

viii.

Urindwanayo, D. & Richter, S. 2020. Teenage pregnancy in refugee camps: A narrative synthesis. Journal of International Women's Studies, 21(1): 255–270. https://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol21/iss1/20

BOX 5.2 | DATA GAPS

Neufeld, L.M., Andrade, E.B., Ballonoff Suleiman, A., Barker, M., Beal, T., Blum, L.S., Demmler, K.M. et al. 2022. Food choice in transition: Adolescent autonomy, agency, and the food environment. The Lancet, 399(10320): 185–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01687-1

ii.

FAO & WHO GIFT. undated. Global Individual Food Consumption Data Tool. In: FAO. Rome. [Cited 23 September 2024]. www.fao.org/gift-individual-food-consumption/data/en

iii.

WHO. undated. Food Safety Collaborative Platform. In: WHO Data. Geneva. [Cited 23 September 2024]. https://apps.who.int/foscollab

iv.

WHO. undated. WHO Collaborating Centres Global Database. In: WHO Data. Geneva [Cited 23 September 2024]. https://apps.who.int/whocc/Default.aspx

WHO. undated. Adolescent health indicators recommended by the Global Action for Measurement of Adolescent health (GAMA). In: WHO Data. [Cited 23 September 2024]. https://platform.who.int/data/maternal-newborn-child-adolescent-ageing/static-visualizations

BOX 5.3 | CONTEXT AND COHORT-SPECIFIC DIETARY TRENDS

Neufeld, L.M., Andrade, E.B., Ballonoff Suleiman, A., Barker, M., Beal, T., Blum, L.S., Demmler, K.M. et al. 2022. Food choice in transition: Adolescent autonomy, agency, and the food environment. The Lancet, 399(10320): 185–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01687-1

ii.

WHO & FAO. 2003. Diet, nutrition and the prevention of chronic diseases: Report of a Joint WHO/FAO Expert Consultation. WHO Technical Report Series 916. Geneva. https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/42665/WHO_TRS_916.pdf?sequence=1

BOX 5.4 | BODY IDEALS INFLUENCE DISORDERED EATING BEHAVIOURS GLOBALLY

Mallick, N., Ray, S. & Mukhopadhyay, S. 2014. Eating behaviours and body weight concerns among adolescent girls. Advances in Public Health, 2014(1): 257396. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/257396

ii.

Boncyk, M., Rampalli, K., Winters, M., Makkar, M. & Blake, C. 2023. Characteristics of actors used to promote healthy and unhealthy foods and beverages in Ghana television advertisements. Current Developments in Nutrition, 7(Suppl 1):100816 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cdnut.2023.100816

iii.

Thornborrow, T., Evans, E.H., Tovee, M.J. & Boothroyd, L.G. 2022. Sociocultural drivers of body image and eating disorder risk in rural Nicaraguan women. Journal of Eating Disorders, 10(1): 133. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40337-022-00656-0

iv.

Swinburn, B.A., Sacks, G., Hall, K.D., McPherson, K., Finegood, D.T., Moodie, M.L. & Gortmaker, S.L. 2011. The global obesity pandemic: Shaped by global drivers and local environments. The Lancet, 378(9793): 804–814. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60813-1

Savoy, S. & Boxer, P. 2020. The impact of weight-biased media on weight attitudes, self-attitudes, and weight-biased behavior. Psychology of Popular Media, 9(1): 31–44. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000232

vi.

Ata, R.N. & Thompson, J.K. 2010. Weight bias in the media: A review of recent research. Obesity Facts, 3(1): 41–46. https://doi.org/10.1159/000276547

vii.

Michels, N. & Amenyah, S.D. 2017. Body size ideals and dissatisfaction in Ghanaian adolescents: Role of media, lifestyle and well-being. Public Health, 146: 65–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2017.01.006

viii.

Daniel, L., Haile, D. & Egata, G. 2023. Disordered eating behaviours and body shape dissatisfaction among adolescents with type 1 diabetes: A cross-sectional study. Journal of Eating Disorders, 11(1): 169. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40337-023-00876-y

ix.

Nilsson, F., Madsen, J.O.B., Jensen, A.K., Olsen, B.S. & Johannesen, J. 2020. High prevalence of disordered eating behavior in Danish children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes. Pediatric Diabetes, 21(6): 1043–1049. https://doi.org/10.1111/pedi.13043

Gerbasi, M.E., Richards, L.K., Thomas, J.J., Agnew-Blais, J.C., Thompson-Brenner, H., Gilman, S.E. & Becker, A.E. 2014. Globalization and eating disorder risk: Peer influence, perceived social norms, and adolescent disordered eating in Fiji. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 47(7): 727–737. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.22349

xi.

Nivedita, N., Sreenivasa, G., Sathyanarayana Rao, T.S. & Malini, S.S. 2018. Eating disorders: Prevalence in the student population of Mysore, South India. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 60(4): 433–437. https://doi.org/10.4103/psychiatry.IndianJPsychiatry_97_16

xii.

Kronfol, Z., Khalifa, B., Khoury, B., Omar, O., Daouk, S., deWitt, J.P., ElAzab, N. et al. 2018. Selected psychiatric problems among college students in two Arab countries: Comparison with the USA. BMC Psychiatry, 18(1): 147. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-018-1718-7

BOX 5.5 | YOUTH ENGAGEMENT IN AGRIFOOD SYSTEMS TRANSFORMATION FOR FOOD SECURITY AND NUTRITION

Global Forum on Migration and Development. undated. International Young Farmers' Exchange Program (IYFEP) between Uganda and Germany. GFMD. Geneva. [Cited 18 January 2025]. www.gfmd.org/pfp/ppd/18761

ii.

WFF (World Food Forum). 2023. Opportunities and barriers for advancing agrifood systems. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc6666en

iii.

Spencer-Jolliffe, N. 2023. Elixir Foods turns cocoa waste into health-conscious sweetener. Global Insights, 13 July 2023. https://insights.figlobal.com/sweeteners/elixir-foods-turns-cocoa-waste-into-health-conscious-sweetener

iv.

Tauzie, M., Hermans, T.D.G. & Whitfield, S. 2024. The New Achikumbe elite: Food systems transformation in the context of digital platforms use in agriculture in Malawi. Agriculture and Human Values, 41(2): 475–489. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-023-10494-8

FAO & WFF. 2024. Digital technologies for multidimensional youth engagement in agrifood systems transformation. Rome. https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/cd2715en

CHAPTER 6

BOX 6.1 | MEASURING MATERIAL AND SUBJECTIVE RESILIENCE

FAO. n.d. Resilience Index Measurement and Analysis (RIMA). In: Agrifood Economic. Rome [Cited 4 June 2025]. www.fao.org/agrifood-economics/areas-of-work/rima/en

ii.

Cox, R.S. & Perry, K-M.E. 2011. Like a fish out of water: Reconsidering disaster recovery and the role of place and social capital in community disaster resilience. American Journal of Community Psychology, 48(3): 395–411. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-011-9427-0

SPOTLIGHT 6.1 | YOUTH RADICALIZATION AND PARTICIPATION IN ARMED CONFLICTS

Mayhew, L., McCullough, A., El Taraboulsi-McCarthy, S., Allen, A. & Levine, S. 2022. The intersection between socioeconomic conditions and youth radicalisation: Implications for programming in the G5 Sahel countries. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb8658en

ii.

Urdal, H. 2006. A clash of generations? Youth bulges and political violence. International Studies Quarterly, 50(3): 607–629. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2478.2006.00416.x

iii.

Collier, P. & Sambanis, N. 2002. Understanding civil war: A new agenda. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 46(1): 3–12. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002702046001001

iv.

Sambe, B., Dicko, A.R., Moussa, I., Oumarou, I.& Dodo Issaka, M.S. 2018. Youth violence and the challenges of violent extremism in Zinder. Geneva, International Organization for Migration. https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/youth_violence_en.pdf

Meagher, K. & Hassan, I.H. 2020. Informalization & its discontents: The informal economy and Islamic radicalization in Northern Nigeria. In: Overcoming Boko Haram: Faith, society and Islamic radicalization in Northern Nigeria. pp. 244–274. Western Africa Series. Martlesham, UK, Boydell & Brewer. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781787446595.013

vi.

McCullough, A. and Diwakar, V. 2019. Resilience and sustainable poverty escapes in Niger. London, ODI; USAID. www.researchgate.net/publication/333619484_Resilience_and_Sustainable_Poverty_Escapes_in_Niger

vii.

Last, M. 2020. An inquiry into possible factors contributing to radicalization in childhood and youth in Northern Nigeria. In: K. Meagher and I.H. Hassan, eds. Overcoming Boko Haram: Faith, society and Islamic radicalization in Northern Nigeria. pp. 225–243. Western Africa Series. Martlesham, UK, Boydell and Brewer. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781787446595-014

viii.

Global Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime. 2024. Observatory of violence in Haiti. Risk bulletins, 1. https://riskbulletins.globalinitiative.net/download/ht-obs-001-screen-pdf.pdf

ix.

Raineri, L. 2022. Explaining the Rise of Jihadism in Africa: The crucial case of the Islamic State of the Greater Sahara. Terrorism and Political Violence, 34(8): 1632–1646. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2020.1828078

ACAPS (Assessment Capacities Project). 2024. HAITI Impact of conflict on children and youth. In: ACAPS. [Cited 4 June 2025]. www.acaps.org/fileadmin/Data_Product/Main_media/20240930_ACAPS_Haiti_-_Impact_of_conflict_on_children_and_youth.pdf

xi.

Ehrhardt, D. & Umar, M.S. 2020. Pathways to radicalization: Learning from Boko Haram life histories. In: K. Meagher and I.H. Hassan, eds. Overcoming Boko Haram: Faith, society and Islamic radicalization in Northern Nigeria. pp. 169–192. Western Africa Series. Boydell & Brewer. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781787446595.010

xii.

van der Heide, L. & Coleman, J. 2020. The last frontier: Prisons and violent extremism in Mali. The Hague, International Centre for Counter-Terrorism. www.jstor.org/stable/resrep25262

xiii.

Nilsson, R. A. 2008. Dangerous liaisons: Why ex-combatants return to violence. Cases from the Republic of Congo and Sierra Leone. Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research. PhD Dissertation. https://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2%3A172980&dswid=7530

xiv.

Utas, M. 2003. Sweet battlefields: Youth and the Liberian Civil War. Uppsala University, Department of Cultural Anthropology and Ethnology. PhD Dissertation. www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:163000/FULLTEXT01.pdf

xv.

Keen, D. 2014. Incentives and disincentives for violence. In: M. Berdal & D. Malone, eds. Greed and grievance: Economic agendas in civil wars. pp. 19–42. Boulder, CO, Lynne Rienner. www.idrc.ca/EN/Resources/Publications

xvi.

McMullin, J. 2003. Reintegration of combatants: Were the right lessons learned in Mozambique? International Peacekeeping, 11(4): 625–643. https://doi.org/10.1080/1353331042000248704

CHAPTER 7

BOX 7.1 | SOCIAL PROTECTION AND YOUTH

SPIAC-B (Social Protection Inter-Agency Cooperation Board). 2019. Collaboration for policy coherence and development impact. New York, USA. [Cited 3 April 2023]. www.socialprotection.org/discover/publications/collaborating-policy-coherence-and-development-impact

ii.

FAO. 2017. FAO Social Protection Framework: Promoting rural development for all. Rome. https://openknowledge.fao.org/items/5ea66b96-33fe-4120-b489-a41c9d234411

iii.

Araujo, C, Baird, S., Das, S., Özler, B., Parisotto, L. & Woldehanna, W. 2024. Social protection and youth. Policy Research Working Paper No. 10832. Washington, DC, World Bank. https://dds.cepal.org/redesoc/publicacion?id=6062

iv.

Duflo, E., P. Dupas, and M. Kremer. 2023. The impact of secondary school subsidies on career trajectories in a dual labor market: Experimental evidence from Ghana. http://economics.mit.edu/sites/default/files/2024-07/2024.06%20The%20Impact%20of%20Secondary%20School%20Subsidies%20on%20Career.pdf

BOX 7.2 | YOUTH MAINSTREAMING IN NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL POLICIES

FAO. FAOLEX database. In: FAO. Rome. [Cited 24 April 2025]. www.fao.org/faolex/en

ii.

African Union Commission. 2022. African Agribusiness Youth Strategy. Addis Ababa. https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/42281-doc-agribusiness.pdf

APPENDICES AND GLOSSARY

APPENDIX 1

FAO. 2024. The State of Food and Agriculture 2024: Value-driven transformation of agrifood systems. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cd2616en

Arslan, A., Cattaneo, A., Humanes, M.B., McMenomy, T., Ranuzzi, E. & Sadiddin, A. 2024. A typology for agrifood systems. Background paper for The State of Food and Agriculture 2024. Rome, FAO. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/9aa2f64e-f9b5-44f2-b6e7-dfb6eedbc7df/content

Lichter, D.T. & Brown, D.L. 2011. Rural America in an urban society: Changing spatial and social boundaries. Annual Review of Sociology, 37: 565–592. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-081309-150208

UNDESA. 2019. World urbanization prospects: The 2018 revision. New York, USA. https://population.un.org/wup/Publications/Files/WUP2018-Report.pdf

Champion, T. & Hugo, G., eds. 2004. New forms of urbanization: Beyond the urban-rural dichotomy. 1st edition. London, Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315248073

10.

Webster, D. 2011. An overdue agenda: Systematizing East Asian peri-urban research. Pacific Affairs, 84(4): 631–642.

11.

12.

13.

IFAD. 2019. 2019 Rural Development Report. Creating opportunities for rural youth. Rome. www.ifad.org/ruraldevelopmentreport

14.

Abay, K.A., Asnake, W., Ayalew, H., Chamberlin, J. & Sumberg, J. 2020. Landscapes of opportunity: Patterns of young people's engagement with the rural economy in sub-Saharan Africa. The Journal of Development Studies, 57(4): 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2020.1808195

15.

Wiggins, S. & Proctor, S. 2001. How special are rural areas? The economic implications of location for rural development. Development Policy Review, 19(4): 427436. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-7679.00142

16.

Sumberg, J., Chamberlin, J., Flynn, J., Glover, D. & Johnson, V. 2020. Landscapes of rural youth opportunity. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3521380

17.

18.

19.

Collins Bartholomew & GSMA. 2024. Coverage – Collins Bartholomew Coverage Mapping. Map the world with Collins Coverage. In: Collins Bartholomew. [Cited 20 March 2024]. www.collinsbartholomew.com/coverage-mapping

20.

Ulm, M., Widhalm, P. & Brändle, N. 2015. Characterization of mobile phone localization errors with OpenCellID data. Conference presentation at the 2015 4th International Conference on Advanced Logistics and Transport (ICALT), May 2015. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICAdLT.2015.7136601

21.

Greenacre, M., Groenen, P.J.F., Hastie, T., D'Enza, A.I., Markos, A. & Tuzhilina, E. 2022. Principal component analysis. Nature Reviews Methods Primers, 2(1): 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43586-022-00184-w

APPENDIX 2

ILO. 2022. ILOSTAT. In: ILOSTAT. [Cited 5 February 2025]. https://ilostat.ilo.org/

ILO. 2024 ILO Harmonized Microdata. https://ilostat.ilo.org/

Papke, L.E. & Wooldridge, J.M. 2008. Panel data methods for fractional response variables with an application to test pass rates. Journal of Econometrics, 145(1): 121–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconom.2008.05.009

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APPENDIX 3

FAO. 2023. RuLIS – Rural Livelihoods Information System. Rome. [Cited 5 December 2023]. www.fao.org/in-action/rural-livelihoodsdataset-rulis/en

IFAD. 2019. 2019 Rural Development Report. Creating opportunities for rural youth. Rome. www.ifad.org/ruraldevelopmentreport

Dolislager, M., Reardon, T., Arslan, A., Fox, L., Liverpool-Tasie, S., Sauer, C. & Tschirley, D.L. 2020. Youth and adult agrifood system employment in developing regions: Rural (peri-urban to hinterland) vs. urban. The Journal of Development Studies, 57(4): 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2020.1808198

Alesina, A., Hohmann, S., Michalopoulos, S. & Papaioannou, E. 2021. Intergenerational Mobility in Africa. Econometrica, 89(1): 1–35. https://doi.org/10.3982/ecta17018

GLOSSARY

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FAO. 2024. The State of Food and Agriculture 2024. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cd2616en

Franzel, S., Davis, K., Gammelgaard, J. & Preissing, J. 2023. Investing in young agripreneurs: Why and how? Rome, FAO; IFPRI. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc2747en

Hilmi, M. 2018. Entrepreneurship in farming: What is the current status of knowledge in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq? In: FAO Family Farming Knowledge Platform. Rome. [Cited 4 June 2025]. www.fao.org/family-farming/detail/en/c/1172342/?utm_source=chatgpt.com

Cattaneo, Nelson, A. & McMenomy, T. 2021. Global mapping of urban–rural catchment areas reveals unequal access to services. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118(2): e2011990118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2011990118

FAO. 2022. Investment guidelines for youth in agrifood systems in Africa. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb9001en

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