ENGAGEMENT
MOVE FOOD
FORWARD

Youth have greater dietary energy and nutrient (see Table 5.1 and Table A5.2 in the Appendix 5) needs than other age groups due to rapid physical growth and activity. Their need for nutrients such as calcium, zinc and iron is especially high.¹⁶ These micronutrient density needs are even greater for adolescents (10–19 years), adolescent girls, youth (15–24 years), and pregnant and lactating females relative to the global average across all life stages (see Box 5.1).²³

At the same time, overweight and obesity driven by high fat, sugar and processed diets contribute to chronic inflammation, early puberty¹⁹ and long-term risks like diabetes and reproductive issues.^{19, 30} They can also impair brain function and self-regulation, potentially leading to neurodevelopmental challenges including impulsive behaviours,^{19, 31} attention disorders, depression and anxiety.^{32, 33} Overweight and obesity during pregnancy can increase the risk of pregnancy complications, infant morbidities, and future obesity and metabolic diseases in offspring.^{34, 35}

Nutrition also directly impacts educational and economic outcomes. Adequate nutrition enhances cognitive function, leading to better concentration, academic achievement and school completion.³⁶ Higher educational attainment opens doors to better employment opportunities, increasing the likelihood of stable income and access to healthy foods later in life.^{37, 38} Conversely, malnourished youth often struggle academically due to impaired cognitive development, increased absenteeism and higher dropout rates, which significantly reduce future employment prospects and economic stability.³⁶ Those who enter the workforce malnourished may struggle with physical limitations, low productivity and frequent absenteeism, which reduce their economic contribution.^{11, 12, 39, 40}

Available dietary data show poor dietary patterns among youth, often marked by inadequate intake of essential nutrients (see Figure 5.3 and Box 5.3). Typical youth diets are characterized by low consumption of fruits and vegetables and high consumption of carbonated soft drinks and fast food, with differences by region and gender.^41–44

Micronutrient intake inadequacies are more common among youth living in East Asia and the Pacific, Latin America and the Caribbean, and South Asia.⁴⁵ Insufficient intake is most common for vitamin E, iron, calcium and iodine. Vitamin E deficiency is common among young people due to inadequate dietary intake, rapid growth and low vitamin stores from childhood, which can lead to long-term health consequences, including increased risk for non-communicable diseases.^46–48 Iron deficiency and anaemia are common among youth aged 10–24, and highest in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, although deficiencies in South Asia declined from 1990 to 2015.⁴⁹ Younger children and adolescents are at risk of zinc and calcium deficiencies due to changes in zinc levels in the blood and increases in calcium demands during growth spurts.⁵⁰ Insufficient intake of iodine is a concern during youth, with large regional variability.⁴⁹ Males and younger youth generally present higher micronutrient inadequacies than females and older youth, although the burden of nutrient deficiencies in youth is greater among females.^{45, 49} Pregnancy in early youth causes an increased risk of developing micronutrient deficiencies to support both the foetus and mother.^{51, 52}

Compounding these issues, excess energy intake has led to a steady increase in the global prevalence of obesity across all sex and income groups, disproportionately affecting those in higher-income groups.⁵³ This trend highlights the dual burden of malnutrition – undernutrition alongside overweight and obesity – that youth face today with rapidly evolving agrifood systems. Health status is becoming progressively worse with the most serious effects observed among lower income youth. As with food insecurity, the risk of poor diets and nutrient inadequacy is not equally distributed across youth, with disparities arising from socioeconomic, regional and gender differences. Socioeconomic status influences diet quality, as youth from lower-income families often consume nutrient-poor, energy-dense foods due to financial constraints.⁵⁴

Regionally, youth in Africa experienced the highest prevalence of food insecurity both in 2014–2016 (37.1 percent) and in 2021–2023 (42.7 percent), while youth in Europe and Northern America reported the lowest rates, increasing from 8.0 percent to 9.7 percent over the same period (Figure 5.4). Asia and the Pacific witnessed the steepest regional increase in youth food insecurity, rising from 15.7 percent in 2014–2016 to 24.8 percent in 2021–2023. In both Asia and the Pacific and Europe and Northern America, youth food insecurity levels surpassed those of adults in the most recent period (respectively, 24.8 percent versus 22.9 percent, and 9.7 percent vs. 8.1 percent) in 2021–2023.

The likelihood of experiencing moderate or severe food insecurity varies with age. Youth aged 15–24 have the highest probability of experiencing food insecurity compared to all other age groups. A gender gap is evident across all age groups but is less pronounced among younger youth (aged 15–17) than older youth (aged 18–24) (Figure 5.5A). Among males, food insecurity remains relatively stable throughout youth and declines with age in adulthood. In contrast, among females, food insecurity increases steadily through adolescence, peaking in the mid-20s before declining in later adulthood.

Rural populations face higher levels of food insecurity than their urban counterparts. For rural males, the probability of food insecurity peaks in the early 20s, while for rural females, it peaks in the mid-20s (Figure 5.5B). The gender gap in food insecurity persists across all age groups and is more pronounced in urban areas, where it reaches the highest levels among adults in their mid-30s to early 60s. Among younger youth, this gap is comparatively smaller, indicating age-specific dynamics at the intersection of gender, location and vulnerability to food insecurity

The relationship between food insecurity and age varies substantially across agrifood systems for both women and men (Figure 5.5C). Agrifood systems at the early stages of transition, such as protracted crisis and traditional systems, exhibit the highest prevalence of food insecurity. In protracted crisis agrifood systems, food insecurity displays the greatest age-related variation, peaking at approximately 65 percent among individuals in their 30s before declining sharply after age 40. In traditional agrifood systems, food insecurity also peaks in the 30s, reaching around 60 percent, but remains above 50 percent across older age groups.

In agrifood systems undergoing intermediate stages of transition, such as expanding systems, and diversifying systems, the probability of food insecurity increases more steeply with age, peaking in the 30s and then declining in later adulthood. In both agrifood systems categories, women are significantly more likely than men to experience food insecurity. As agrifood systems continue to transition, the problem of food insecurity decreases. In formalizing agrifood systems, the risk of food insecurity is relatively low in youth, with minimal gender disparities up to age 20. However, gender differences emerge in early adulthood, with women facing higher and increasing probabilities of food insecurity through lates stages of life. In industrial agrifood systems, youth, and particularly young women, face a greater probability of food insecurity.

SOCIAL NORMS AND FOOD CHOICES FOR YOUTH

Early relationships with food, shaped largely by parental practices, play a critical role in how youth classify, process and act on food-related information.^86–90 Youth from households where the parents organize the physical and social eating environment and involve their children in decision-making tend to have healthier diets than those from households with strict, parental-dominated parenting styles that limit their child’s independence.^91,92 In early adolescence (10–14 years), food choices are largely parent-controlled, shifting toward self-directed choices by middle and late adolescence, when youth form their own eating identities (e.g. healthy, picky, vegetarian).^93,94 Autonomy over food choices varies, with youth often exercising more control during mornings (e.g. breakfast), weekends or meals outside the home, while parental influence remains strong during family meals and household purchases.⁹⁵ Younger youth often perceive food decisions as joint efforts, while parents view them as primarily parental.⁹⁶

Parents, especially those with greater nutrition knowledge, play a key role in guiding their youth toward healthy decisions.^97,98 In Viet Nam, youth aged 15–17 with greater parental monitoring reported healthier eating behaviours.⁹⁹ Similarly, in Peru, youth described how parental guidance emphasized regular meals, adequate intake of fruits, vegetables and dairy, and limited sugar-sweetened beverages to prevent disease. Eating behaviours formed during youth often persisted into adulthood.

Peer relationships also influence food decisions, either reinforcing or challenging social expectations¹⁶ and helping to develop self-regulation.¹⁰⁰ Peers shape dietary intentions and behaviours through social pressure^95,98 to align with group eating habits.⁷² For example, sugar-sweetened beverages and unhealthy foods are often consumed with peers during school breaks.¹⁰¹ In traditional agrifood systems, such as rural Bangladesh, young people commonly purchase food from street vendors on their way to and from school. Bringing food from home may lead to mockery or exclusion, while sharing street food is seen as way to bond.¹⁰² The effect of peer influence varies by gender, age, self-regulation, type of food and closeness of friendships.⁷³ Susceptibility to peer pressure decreases with maturity as youth develop a stronger sense of self. Stronger self-regulation is associated with healthier eating habits, such as increased fruit and vegetable intake, while poor self-regulation often leads to junk food consumption and sedentary behaviour.^103,104

Household dynamics and cultural norms also shape youth diets.¹⁰⁵ In many rural areas of LMICs, food is closely tied to family and cultural norms. Shared meals dominate and food behaviours align with tradition, such that in households where one-pot meal preparation is common, the entire family’s diet may accommodate the health needs of a single member.¹⁰⁶ As youth enter romantic relationships or become parents, they often shift focus from individual to household nutritional needs. The establishment of new dietary habits can lead to unhealthy eating behaviours, though this risk tends to decrease if mutual support for healthy eating is established.^107–110

Parenthood, particularly for young mothers, brings new challenges by shifting priorities from the self to the child. Cultural beliefs and food taboos may dictate what foods pregnant women should or should not be consuming,^{111, 112} and young parents may rely on family members to navigate their new and challenging life roles.¹¹³ In rural areas, youth may take on other caregiving roles, including food preparation for younger siblings while their mothers work.¹¹⁴ Without careful consideration of the unique challenges faced by rural youth, changes in agrifood systems can exacerbate inequities, further limiting access to affordable, healthy food.

Social norms, beliefs and values related to food – such as body image, self-esteem, environmental considerations and health goals – further guide food decisions among youth,¹¹⁵ with these influences varying by socioeconomic status^{116, 117} and educational attainment.¹¹⁸ In many cultures, gender norms shape how food is distributed within households. While food allocation has become relatively equitable,¹¹⁹ females in South Asia and parts of Africa still receive smaller portions and lower-quality nutrient-rich foods, especially in resource-scarce settings.^{120, 121} A study of Costa Rican youth found gender stereotypes to be a key determinant of eating habits.¹²² Consuming large amounts of unhealthy foods was seen as a sign of masculinity, while eating small portions of healthy foods and focusing on body care were associated with femininity. Parents reinforce these norms, particularly by encouraging daughters to control their weight. In some cultures, females are more likely to conform to societal expectations around body image, which may lead to disordered eating,^123–125 whereas males are more likely to adopt unhealthy eating behaviours due to social influences,^{126, 127} particularly as they grow older, aligned with a decline in self-regulation during this developmental stage.^128–130

Moreover, economic and social status shape food choices by influencing access and the symbolic value of foods.¹³¹ Youth from wealthier backgrounds often prioritize foods that symbolize social status, including those that are often more accessible and socially acceptable in their circles. Youth from economically disadvantaged households tend to prioritize affordability in their food choices. In contexts with pronounced social class distinctions, these patterns are reinforced, influencing not only what foods are consumed but also how food is perceived and valued.^132–133 Understanding these social influences on youth diet is crucial for developing policies and programmes that promote healthy eating habits and address barriers to nutritious food access (Chapter 7).

Economic disparities directly affect youth’s dietary decisions.^{157, 158} Parental education, household income and family structure all influence youths’ ability to achieve financial independence and secure adequate nutrition.^{159, 160} Youth with educated parents or stable family incomes are often more financially secure,⁸² enabling them to access and afford healthier diets. Conversely, those from lower-income families may be forced to prioritize energy-dense, cheaper foods that compromise their long-term health.^161–163 Migrant youth, especially those from LMICs, often face food insecurity due to unfamiliar food environments, limited financial resources or economic pressures.^58–60 The challenges are compounded for rural youth due to economic, geographical and historical barriers, including geographic isolation and limited access to diverse, nutritious foods. Indigenous youth experience additional challenges rooted in historical marginalization, cultural erosion and reliance on nutrient-poor processed foods.^164–66

contributing to a rise in obesity and non-communicable diseases.^{167, 175} Characteristics of these agrifood system typologies often coexist within countries, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, leading to fragmented food environments.¹⁷⁵ For rural and marginalized youth, the benefits of agrifood systems transition are not always equitably distributed, and their nutritional vulnerabilities may persist or intensify.^176–179 Unlike urban areas, access to healthy and diverse food is more limited in rural areas.¹⁸⁰ Rural families often purchase food in bulk or from small convenience-type stores with a limited range of food items, in order to avoid long trips to the grocery store. Such habits limit youth exposure to fresh foods and increase their reliance on ultra-processed, nonperishable and often unhealthy foods.^{171, 172} Addressing these divergent realities requires integrated policy approaches that consider not only food availability, but also the intersection of cultural norms, market forces and socioeconomic inequalities that shape youth food choices and nutritional outcomes.^{169, 170, 175, 181}

Food security and nutrition are critical to both the individual well-being and broader economic development of youth. As agrifood systems transform, they shape not only what youth eat but also how they learn, work and thrive. When well-nourished, youth are better equipped to succeed in school, enter the workforce, and contribute meaningfully to agrifood systems transformation and society at large. As active participants in reshaping agrifood systems, youth hold the potential to drive positive change (see Box 5.5). To effectively deliver on its promise of improved food security and nutrition for youth, agrifood systems transformation must align with young people’s biological and dietary needs, sociocultural values and aspirations, and economic realities. Thoughtful agrifood systems transformation, involving youth as active co-creative agents in the transformation process, is necessary to enable healthy diets for all.