Land degradation refers to a long-term decline in the capacity of land to provide essential ecosystem functions and services. While definitions vary, they all consistently highlight persistent negative trends in biological productivity, ecological integrity and value to humans – driven by both natural processes and, increasingly, human activities.2, 3, 15, 43–45 This report focuses on human-induced land degradation due to its significant implications for agricultural productivity, food security and socioeconomic stability – especially in regions heavily reliant on farming.
Land degradation is rarely the result of a single factor. Instead, it arises from a complex interplay of environmental, socioeconomic and institutional pressures acting at various scales. Natural biophysical processes such as soil erosion, salinization, waterlogging and the depletion of vital soil organic matter are key drivers – often intensified by climate variability, including extreme weather events such as droughts and floods. However, human activities including deforestation, overgrazing, unsustainable cropping and irrigation practices are increasingly responsible for accelerating these processes.3, 46, 47
Importantly, land degradation occurs along a spectrum, resulting in increasingly severe impacts – from subtle declines in ecosystem function to the complete loss of agricultural viability and abandonment. Figure 3 illustrates this continuum, highlighting key stages and a tipping point where land may fall out of productive use. For example, degradation-driven land abandonment occurred in the Costa de Hermosillo in Mexico, where seawater intrusion associated with extensive use of irrigation caused widespread salinization and crop loss.8 The figure also emphasizes that land restoration is possible at any stage; however, while restoration may improve land conditions, it does not always result in land that is fully restored to native conditions or returned to agriculture.
Figure 3 Spectrum of Land Degradation and Restoration Pathways
Understanding this progression requires clarity around related concepts. While soil degradation refers to specific processes such as nutrient depletion, salinization, and the loss of soil structure and biodiversity,48, 49 land degradation includes all negative changes affecting the broader natural resource base that supports agriculture, livestock and forestry.50 Similarly, desertification is not a separate phenomenon but a manifestation of land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid regions.51 Recognizing these distinctions is essential for accurately diagnosing degradation processes and implementing effective land management strategies.
Disentangling land degradation from other causes of land abandonment is complex, as it is often intertwined with economic, social and environmental factors. Nonetheless, land degradation undeniably plays a significant role, as evidenced by historical events of abandonment such as the Dust Bowl in the United States of America during the 1930s and the salinization of irrigated agricultural areas around the Aral Sea. Globally, approximately 3.6 Mha of cropland were abandoned annually between 1992 and 2020, and it is legitimate to assume that land degradation played a sizeable role in this abandonment.52
While land degradation leading to the abandonment of degraded croplands and pastures can have a major impact on food security and the environment, the less visible degradation of croplands poses a similarly direct and growing threat. This report introduces analysis on cropland degradation – reflecting croplands’ central role in food production and the spectrum of degradation illustrated in Figure 3. At the same time, it maintains a broader perspective that considers degradation across other land-use categories based on the latest literature. Degraded croplands suffer reduced productivity, directly impacting the cropland base that supplies two-thirds of global caloric intake.53 Indirectly, cropland degradation also drives agricultural expansion into meadows, pastures and forests, that is, landscapes that support diverse food production systems. Addressing degradation of croplands can generate positive spillover effects for these other land systems, facilitating synergies across multiple SDG targets.
Crucially, land degradation is not a predetermined outcome of agriculture.8 With thoughtful stewardship and regenerative approaches, farming can become a force for avoiding, reducing and reversing land degradation, not only on croplands but also on other types of land, balancing productivity with the preservation of ecological integrity.
