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Table of contents

FOREWORD

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

INTRODUCTION

Purpose

Users

Scope

Structure

WHY SHOULD AGRICULTURAL PROGRAMMES INCLUDE THE CHILD LABOUR TOPIC IN THEIR M&E SYSTEM?

HOW DO AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD SECURITY PROGRAMMES INFLUENCE CHILD LABOUR?

Good practices to address child labour

PART 1: CHILD LABOUR IN FAMILY-BASED AGRICULTURE

1.  CHILD LABOUR – DEFINITIONS, CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES

1.1  Definitions and international Conventions

1.2  Causes of child labour

1.3  Consequences of child labour

2.  CHILD LABOUR IN FAMILY-BASED AGRICULTURE

2.1  Definition of family-based agriculture

2.2  Prevalence of child labour

2.3  Challenges in addressing child labour in family-based agriculture

3.  CHILDREN’S INVOLVEMENT IN THE AGRICULTURAL SUBSECTORS

3.1  Crop production

3.2  Livestock

3.3  Fisheries and aquaculture

3.4  Forestry

PART 2: M&E OF PROGRAMME IMPACTS ON CHILD LABOUR

1.  CRITERIA FOR ASSESSING CHILD LABOUR

1.1  Must-know criteria

1.2  Must-know background information

2.  INTEGRATING THE CHILD LABOUR TOPIC IN THE PROGRAMME CYCLE

2.1  Programme cycle

2.2  Planning

2.3  Monitoring

2.4  Evaluation

3.  STEPS FOR ASSESSING PROGRAMME IMPACTS ON CHILD LABOUR

3.1  Preparation of the process

3.2  Data collection

3.3  Data analysis

3.4  Follow-up

PART 3: TOOLKIT

How to use the toolkit

PROGRAMME STAFF DISCUSSION

TOOL 1: Programme impact analysis

TOOL 2: Extended programme impact analysis

TOOL 3: Stakeholder map

TOOL 4: Spider diagram

INTERVIEWS

TOOL 5: Interview with programme beneficiary

TOOL 6: Interview with children

TOOL 7: Guidelines for the integration of a child labour module into a household survey

TOOL 8: Daily schedule / daily clock

TOOL 9: Expert interview

FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION

TOOL 10: Venn Diagram

TOOL 11: Village social map

TOOL 12: Observation walk

TOOL 13: Problem and solution tree

TOOL 14: Influence matrix

TOOL 15: Impact discussion

TOOL 16: School attendance monitoring

TOOLKIT: TEMPLATES

TEMPLATE 1 – Interview with programme beneficiary

TEMPLATE 2 – Interview with a child

TEMPLATE 3 – Expert interview

TEMPLATE 4 – Observation walk

TEMPLATE 5 – Influence matrix

TEMPLATE 6 – School attendance monitoring

APPENDIX I

APPENDIX II

II.1  CHILD LABOUR IN CROP PRODUCTION

II.2  CHILD LABOUR IN LIVESTOCK

II.3  CHILD LABOUR IN FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE

II.4  CHILD LABOUR IN FORESTRY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

List of tables

TABLE 1:    Structure of the Handbook

TABLE 2:    Intended positive impacts of agricultural programmes on child labour

TABLE 3:    Good practices for addressing child labour

TABLE 4:    Supply and demand factors of child labour

TABLE 5:    Necessary steps for assessing programme impacts on child labour

TABLE 6:    Gathering information using tools in the toolkit

TABLE 7:    Most vulnerable households

TABLE 8:    Analysis categories for processing data

TABLE 9:    Analysis table for identifying child labour

TABLE 10:  Analysis table for identifying the programme impacts

TABLE 11:  Structure of the tools

TABLE 12:  Description and potential of the tools

TABLE 13:  Guiding questions for identifying programme impacts

TABLE 14:  Programme impact analysis

TABLE 15:  Guiding questions for identifying programme impacts

TABLE 16:  Cooperation plan

TABLE 17:  Do's and don'ts for interviewing

TABLE 18:  Do's and don'ts for interviewing children

TABLE 19:  Do's and don'ts for focus group discussions

TABLE 20:  Rating the influence of agricultural programmes

TABLE 21:  Templates provided

TABLE 22:  Examples of potential positive and negative impacts of agricultural programmes on child labour

TABLE 23:  Tasks, hazards and health risks of children in crop production

TABLE 24:  Tasks, hazards and health risks of children in livestock

TABLE 25:  Tasks, hazards and health risks of children in fisheries and aquaculture

TABLE 26:  Tasks, hazards and health risks of children in forestry

List of figures

FIGURE 1:    Structure of the Handbook

FIGURE 2:    Typical impacts of agricultural programmes

FIGURE 3:    Vicious cycle of poverty

FIGURE 4:    Programme cycle

FIGURE 5:    Extended programme impact analysis

FIGURE 6:    Stakeholder map

FIGURE 7:    Spider diagram for child labour criteria

FIGURE 8:    Daily clock

FIGURE 9:    Venn diagram

FIGURE 10:  Problem tree

Foreword

Many children around the world work on the farm, help out on the fishing boat, herd the cattle, or reap fruits or collect burning wood in forests. For poor families, such activities by children are important to their livelihoods. The children acquire agricultural and life skills which can bear them fruits in their future lives.

For about 100 million girls and boys, however, working in agriculture is not as beneficial. They are exposed to hazardous conditions affecting their health and their work in agriculture goes at cost of their education, jeopardizing their future.

They are considered child labourers. Agriculture is the single sector making most use of child labour.

It is our moral duty to improve the situation of children in rural areas and prevent child labour. Keeping them away from hazardous working conditions and ensuring they get an education will provide children with a chance for a better life and a more prosperous future. Preventing and reducing child labour in agriculture is thus not only a question of human rights, but it is also good economics. A healthy childhood and adequate education are the seeds for a more productive life in adulthood. The high prevalence of child labour, in contrast, is caused by poverty as much as that it tends to trap children and their future dependent into poverty, as it hampers the development of their skills and damages their health.

Since 2007, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has stepped up its support to countries and communities in preventing child labour. This area of work is an important component of FAO's activities that promote decent employment in agriculture and rural areas and aim to reduce rural poverty. FAO is ensuring child labour concerns are considered in the design and implementation of all of its programmes and projects.

The Centre for Rural Development (Seminar für Ländliche Entwicklung, SLE) at the Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin has trained young professionals in international development cooperation over more than five decades. In 2008, SLE conducted a study for FAO on Child Labour and Children's Economic Activities in Agriculture in Ghana and has further developed its knowledge base on the matter ever since. The partnership with SLE now has led to this Handbook, which hopefully will become a powerful tool to support all efforts at resolving the problem of child labour in agriculture.

It is clear that very specific programmes targeted at children will not be good enough to prevent all forms of child labour. It will have to come from broader food security and agricultural and rural development programmes that lift people out of poverty. By integrating child labour concerns into the monitoring and evaluation frameworks of such broader programmes will be essential. The Handbook provides a set of good practices and innovative approaches for doing so.

The Handbook recognizes that one size does not fit all, and that programmes and policies need to be adapted to each context. The tools provided give that flexibility. The Handbook provides an accessible guide to all interested scholars and practitioners, as key concepts are explained in a simple and straightforward manner and its easy-to-use monitoring and evaluation tools.

Ensuring child labour in agriculture becomes part of history and creating a future of sustainable food security are two sides of the same coin. This Handbook tries to respond to these twin challenges.

Rob Vos
Director of Social Protection Division
and Coordinator of Rural Poverty Reduction
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Dr. Susanne Neubert
Director of the Centre for Rural Development (SLE)
Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin

Acknowledgements

The Handbook on monitoring and evaluating the impacts of agricultural and food security programmes on child labour in family-based agriculture was made possible thanks to the contributions of individuals and organizations, and their valuable inputs are gratefully acknowledged.

The publication was prepared by researchers at the Centre for Rural Development (SLE) of the Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany: Heidi Feldt (Team Leader) and Lena Bullerdieck, Elen Ambros, Robin Cordes and Leonie Craes (junior researchers).

The development of the Handbook was overseen by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Overall supervision was provided by Bernd Seiffert (ESP), and general guidance was supplied by Ariane Genthon (ESP).

The following FAO colleagues at headquarters provided important technical contributions: Jacqueline Demeranville (ESP), Michelle Mills (ESP), Maria Mikadze (ESP), Peter Wobst (ESP), Ileana Grandelis (ESP), Andrea Sanchez Enciso (ESP), Igor Vinci (ESP), Maria Donnat (ESP), Regina Laub (ESP), Rob Vos (ESP), Benjamin Davis (ESA) and Bernd Bultemeier (OEDD).

The Handbook was field-tested in Cambodia, where several institutions and individuals provided fundamental and continuous support. Sincere gratitude is expressed to:

H.E. Mom Thany and the staff of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF), in particular Ms. Kaing Khim, Department of Fisheries, Mr. Mak Mony, Department of Planning and Statistics, Mr. Nouth Sophorn, Ministry of Labour and Vocational Training;

the FAO Country Office in Cambodia, especially Nina Brandstrup, FAO Representative in Cambodia, and Kosal Oum, Assistant FAO Representative (programme) and the programme unit team; and

Khieu Sam Oeurn, for his outstanding commitment to enabling researchers to communicate with the Cambodian farmers and for his valuable insights into the agrarian system of Cambodia.

The methods and tools presented in the Handbook were tested in projects of the MAFF, in the MALIS project of FAO and the HARVEST project of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The vital support provided by project staff is gratefully acknowledged.

The International Labour Organization (ILO) provided technical contributions and support to the field research. Thanks goes to the ILO Office in Cambodia, to Simrin Singh (ILO Regional Office in Bangkok) and to Charlotte Goemans (ILO Office for East Africa).

The team of researchers benefited greatly from the expertise and contributions of Ms Paola Termine (ILO), and from the support of their fellow researcher, Iris Paulus (SLE).

Special thanks go to Dr Susanne Neubert, Director of the Centre for Rural Development, for her continuous support and her valuable input during the revision of the Handbook.

Sincere gratitude is expressed to the numerous single professionals and organizations without whose important technical inputs, this publication would not have been possible.

Finally, we would like to thank Ruth Duffy for the final editing and Fabrizio Puzzilli for the layout and design of this publication.

Abbreviations and acronyms

Introduction

Purpose

The Handbook offers guidance and tools for assessing the impacts of agricultural and food security programmes and projects on child labour in family-based agriculture. The Handbook helps agricultural programmes:

- incorporate child labour prevention or mitigation in the design stage;

- monitor their unintended or intended impacts on child labour; and

- evaluate their impacts on child labour in the programme area.

Clarification of terms – Agricultural and food security programmes and projects

The Handbook applies to different forms of agricultural and food security programmes and projects. For reasons of legibility, the expression “agricultural programmes” used here covers all these forms.

The term “agriculture” includes the following subsectors: crop production; livestock husbandry and herding; fisheries and aquaculture; and forestry.

In addition, the Handbook aims to sensitize agricultural programme staff on the importance of incorporating child labour prevention as a cross-cutting issue in their planning, monitoring and evaluation (M&E) system and of systematically considering the potential positive and negative impacts of agricultural programmes on child labour. The Handbook furthermore encourages the user to identify good agricultural practices for preventing and reducing child labour in agriculture.

Users

The Handbook is designed for use by planners and implementers of agricultural programmes, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), international organizations, agricultural ministries, policy-makers, agricultural advisors, agricultural producers' organizations, and external evaluators who specifically:

- consider that child labour might be a problem in a specific programme region;

- want to ensure that their work does not adversely affect the working situation of children;

- want to promote sustainable solutions to reduce and prevent child labour in family-based agriculture; and, therefore

- need to assess the impacts of a specific programme on the situation of child labour in the programme area.

Scope

The Handbook is designed so that its users can integrate the child labour topic in different ways and at different stages of a programme cycle. The Handbook may be used and child labour can be considered in the programme process whether or not there is already an existing or functioning M&E system. The child labour situation and the programme impacts on child labour can be assessed once during the programme cycle or, as recommended, repeatedly through monitoring and evaluation.

The most common entry points for integrating the child labour topic in programmes are:

- in the planning stage of a programme;

- in the monitoring routine of an ongoing programme; and/or

- as part of a mid-term, final or ex-post evaluation.

When identifying an entry point and deciding how to integrate the child labour topic in the programme, it must be taken into account that integration in the planning stage of a programme is the most sustainable and effective way of measuring the impacts of a programme on child labour.

Structure

The Handbook is divided into three parts. Figure 1 provides an overview of the contents of each.

In all three parts of the Handbook, the symbols below are used to highlight important aspects:

The following table guides the user through the Handbook by indicating where to find information on different points of interest and answers to specific questions.

Why should agricultural programmes include the child labour topic in their M&E system?

Agricultural interventions can have important impacts on the prevention, reduction and elimination of child labour; however, they may also lead to an increase in child labour due to a rise in labour demand. Therefore, understanding the long-term effects on the child labour situation is necessary to reveal the value of an intervention.[1] Despite these potential positive or negative impacts, the majority of agricultural programmes do not yet monitor and evaluate the impacts of programme activities on the working situation of children. The monitoring and the evaluation of programme impacts on the child labour situation is important however, in particular when the programme lacks the necessary responses to maximize positive impacts or to prevent and reduce negative impacts on child labour.

The need to address child labour within the scope of agricultural programmes can be approached from two different angles:

- Child labour is a human rights issue. All children have a right to childhood, including the right to protection from economic exploitation and from labour that jeopardizes their further development, education or health.

- Child labour perpetuates a cycle of poverty for the children involved, their families and the community as a whole. Child labour is detrimental to children's education and their acquisition of higher-level skills, and it decreases their chances of decent employment as adults.

Agricultural programmes can contribute to preventing child labour and to reducing the hazards child labourers are exposed to. The inclusion of the child labour topic in M&E systems can help agricultural programmes to determine at an early stage whether they have an effect on the child labour situation, and whether they should take preventive and corrective actions. By considering the child labour topic in M&E systems, it is possible to document good practices and positive changes in children's lives during the programme duration and to promote these practices.

M&E of child labour helps to demonstrate the efforts made by agricultural stakeholders towards ensuring child labour-free agricultural value chains, which could provide a competitive advantage in the context of increasing demand for labour rights compliance in consumer markets.

How do agricultural and food security programmes influence child labour?

It can be assumed that most agricultural programmes have unintended or indirect impacts on child labour. Programmes can help free children from child labour and reduce the hazards that working children and youth are exposed to.

On the other hand, agricultural programmes may lead to an increase in labour demand, which might then be met through child labour. In addition, some agricultural programmes include social components in their area of intervention or include children directly in their target group; these programmes can have intended impacts on children and their working situation. Figure 2 shows the typical components of agricultural programmes and the most probable positive or negative impacts on child labour. Appendix I presents a broader overview of agricultural programmes, their intended impacts on the target group and their potential unintended positive or negative impacts on the working, education and health situation of children.

Typical areas of intervention of agricultural and food security programmes

- Knowledge management

- Trainings / Farmer Field Schools

- Technical support / Introduction of new technologies

- Extension services

- Income generation

- Microfinance services

- Input subsidies

- Capacity development

- Improvement of value chains

- Policy support (or advice)

- Resilience and adaptation to crisis situations

- Empowerment strategies

In recent years, the number of agricultural organizations targeting child labour directly through their programmes has increased. An increasing number of case studies and good practices have also been developed.

Good practices to address child labour

Good practices to address child labour have emerged from efforts to:

- prevent children at risk from becoming child labourers;

- abolish hazardous working conditions; and

- withdraw and rehabilitate children from the worst forms of child labour.

The following table introduces some good practices towards the reduction of child labour and the elimination of its worst forms based on examples given by the International Labour Organization (ILO) for the agricultural sector.[3]

PART 1:

CHILD LABOUR
IN FAMILY-BASED AGRICULTURE

This part of the Handbook covers the main definitions and approaches needed for dealing with child labour in family-based agriculture. It explains the main causes and consequences of child labour, describes the challenges of addressing child labour in family-based agriculture and introduces typical tasks, hazards and health risks that children face in the various agricultural subsectors.

1. Child labour – definitions, causes and consequences

1.1 Definitions and international Conventions

Defining child labour is not always as easy and straightforward as it first seems. The definition encompasses the complex concepts of childhood, work and labour. The international regulations and Conventions dealing with child labour refer to the following distinctions/concepts:

- Working children

- Child labour

- Age-appropriate tasks

- Light work

- Worst forms of child labour

- Hazardous work

What is a child?

According to the Convention on the Rights of the Child (UN, 1989) and the ILO's Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182), the term “child” applies to anyone up to the age of 18 years. The child's age is an important factor for differentiating between age appropriate tasks and child labour and is at the centre of the ILO's Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138).

What is the minimum age for children's employment?

The ILO Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138) specifies the minimum age for different types of employment:

- 13 years for light work

- 15 years for ordinary work

- 18 years for hazardous work

Developing countries that ratified Convention No. 138 have the option to designate a higher age or, in exceptional cases, an age 1 year lower than the standard.[6]

What is child labour?

Child labour is defined as work that impairs children's well-being or hinders their education, development and future livelihoods. The Convention on the Rights of the Child (UN, 1989) recognizes and emphasizes the child's right to education and the right of the child to be protected from economic exploitation and from performing any work that is likely to be hazardous, interfere with the child's education, or be harmful to the child's health or physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social development.

Age-appropriate tasks become “child labour” when children:

- are too young for the work they are undertaking;

- work too many hours for their age;

- undertake work of a hazardous nature or in hazardous conditions;

- work under slave-like conditions; or

- are obliged to undertake illicit activities.

What are age-appropriate tasks?

While child labour is by definition unacceptable, there are age-appropriate tasks that are not harmful to children and can even be beneficial. These tasks do not interfere with the child's education, they are physically appropriate to the child's development and allow sufficient time for recreation and leisure. For example, the weight of a load carried by a child must be suitable for the child's stage of physical development. Especially in the context of family-based economic activities, some participation by children may be regarded as positive, since it contributes to the intergenerational transfer of skills and children's food security.[7]

What is light work?

ILO Convention No. 138 allows children to perform light work from 13 years, as long as the work does not fall under the scope of the worst forms of child labour and does not interfere with the child's education and physical and mental development. In agriculture, light work might be work near the children's home, under the supervision of the parents and physically not demanding – for example, chicken-raising at household level. National legislation must determine which activities can be considered light work and prescribe the number of hours and conditions in which these light work activities may be undertaken.[8]

What is youth employment?

“Youth” have reached the age where they may leave compulsory education and the age at which they have reached the minimum age for legal employment (generally 15). The age at which someone stops being considered a “youth” varies by country or region, however the UN defines “youth” as persons between the ages of 15 and 24 years.[9]

There are diverse forms of work in which young people can engage, with vastly different employment conditions. Agriculture, however, continues to play a central role in providing jobs and earnings to young and adult workers, especially those living in low-income countries.[10] In this context, it is important to consider that there is an overlap between children and youth for the specific age group of those who are 15 and above, but under 18. Youth may be in child labour, if they are under 18 and engaged in hazardous work or other worst forms of child labour.

What are the worst forms of child labour?

The Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182) defines the worst forms of child labour as:

- all forms of slavery or practices similar to slavery, such as the sale and trafficking of children, debt bondage and serfdom and forced or compulsory labour, including forced or compulsory recruitment of children for use in armed conflict;

- the use, procuring or offering of a child for prostitution, for the production of pornography or for pornographic performances;

- the use, procuring or offering of a child for illicit activities, in particular for the production and trafficking of drugs as defined in the relevant international treaties; and

- work which, by its nature or the circumstances in which it is carried out, is likely to harm the health, safety or morals of children (hazardous work).

These forms of labour are mostly performed by the most vulnerable and poorest children. The international community has recognized the urgent need to eliminate the worst forms of child labour.

What is hazardous work?

Many child labourers in agriculture are trapped in hazardous work. The ILO has classified the agricultural sector as one of the most hazardous working environments, especially for children. The ILO Worst Forms of Child Labour Recommendation, 1999 (No. 190) provides guidance on what kind of work should be prohibited:

- work that exposes children to physical, emotional or sexual abuse;

- work underground, underwater, at dangerous heights or in confined spaces;

- work with dangerous machinery, equipment and tools, or work that involves the manual handling or transporting of heavy loads;

- work in an unhealthy environment, which may, for example, expose children to hazardous substances, agents or processes or to temperatures, noise levels, or vibrations damaging to their health;

- work under particularly difficult conditions, such as work for long hours or during the night; and

- work that prevents children from returning home each day.

1.2 Causes of child labour

The main cause of child labour in agriculture is persistent rural household poverty. Poor families often rely on the work performed by children in order to meet their immediate needs. Labour migration of adult household members leads to labour shortages, which are often compensated for with the work of children. Households headed by children, for example due to deaths from HIV/AIDS, are particularly affected.

The limited availability of basic education, especially in remote rural areas, the poor quality of education and the high costs of schooling are additional factors contributing to a high prevalence of child labour. For example, in situations where educational institutions are not accessible or affordable or when parents see no value in education, children are sent to work, rather than to school.

An unfavourable socio-economic context, such as low income levels or low occupational status, weak labour market mechanisms and structural unemployment, can foster the increase in child labour. Employers may prefer to hire children because they are cheaper than their adult counterparts. Child labour is also influenced by cultural practices, social and gender inequalities and the lack of awareness of communities about its negative consequences. The absence of appropriate national policies and legislation on child labour and inadequate enforcement of existing legal frameworks further exacerbate the situation.[11]

1.3 Consequences of child labour

Poverty and the daily struggle for survival can hamper individuals' ability to acquire higher-level skills, adopt improved production methods and technologies, make informed decisions, develop successful agribusinesses, learn to innovate and respond to economic shocks. This can affect the whole community, because without such capacities and the developments they entail, the agricultural productivity and performance of rural economies is likely to remain low.

The vicious cycle of poverty demonstrates that child labour impedes education and is a major threat to future decent employment in youth and adulthood and a barrier to long-term agricultural and rural development, both locally and regionally.[12]

2. Child labour in family-based agriculture

2.1 Definition of family-based agriculture

Family farms account for almost 90 percent of the world's farms.[14] Worldwide, 500 million farms are family-owned. Only a small number of family farms are large, commercial corporations with numerous employees. The vast majority (more than 475 million) are small-scale enterprises under 2 hectare in size.[15]

Definition of family farming

“All family-based agricultural activities, linked to several areas of rural development. Family farming is a means of organizing agricultural, forestry, fisheries, pastoral and aquaculture production which is managed and operated by a family and predominantly reliant on family labour [rather than on hired work], including both women's and men's. The family and the farm are linked, co-evolve and combine economic, environmental, social and cultural functions.”[13] In family-based agriculture, the majority of the household income derives from the family farm. The term “family farming” is often used interchangeably with smallholder, family-based or small-scale agriculture.

2.2 Prevalence of child labour

The majority of the world's poorest population lives in rural areas and works in agriculture. Agriculture constitutes one of the three most dangerous sectors for children to work in at any age[16] and a large share of child labour in agriculture takes place in family-based agriculture.

- 75% of the world's poorest population lives in rural areas and most of the rural poor depend, directly or indirectly, on agriculture for their livelihoods.[17]

- 59% of the 168 million child labourers in the world work in agriculture.

- 85 million of all child labourers are engaged in hazardous work.

- 59% (about 50 million) of children in hazardous work are in agriculture.[18]

Rural children, especially girls, often begin to work and support their families when they are 5–7 years old.[19] Boys' and girls' participation in rural activities within their own families can help them to acquire skills and contribute to the generation of household income, which can have a positive impact on their livelihoods. On the other hand, rural work is physically demanding, often involving long periods of stooping, repetitive movements and carrying heavy loads over long distances. In addition, a lot of agricultural work is seasonal and often incompatible with school calendars, so that children miss or drop out of school due to their working activities.

In recent years, there has been an increase in awareness about child labour and its role in international value chains (e.g. in export crops such as cocoa, coffee and cotton); companies, development organizations and other stakeholders have begun to address child labour in the respective value chains. On the other hand, child labour within family-based agriculture and not linked to international commodities has been largely neglected. The International Partnership for Cooperation on Child Labour in Agriculture brings together a range of partner organizations: the International Labour Organization (ILO), the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and the International Union of Food, Agricultural, Hotel, Restaurant, Catering, Tobacco and Allied Workers' Associations (IUF). The partnership works for the elimination and prevention of child labour in agriculture; including to address child labour in family-based agriculture, raising awareness both in and outside the organizations.

2.3 Challenges in addressing child labour in family-based agriculture

Tackling child labour in family-based agriculture is a matter of urgency, yet it represents a complex challenge for several reasons:

1. The nature of the agricultural sector in general

The agricultural sector is historically and traditionally under-regulated, presenting numerous challenges: family undertakings are poorly covered in national labour legislation; there is only limited unionization of workers and poor organization of producers; and the labour force is fragmented.[20]

2. Addressing a family-based working environment

Most children in a family-based working environment are unpaid labourers without formal contracts, and they do not feature in statistics.[21] In such circumstances, child labour is often invisible, as most children work in dispersed small-scale farms in remote locations, on fishing boats, in plantations, in mountain areas or herding livestock. Given the blurred boundaries between the household and the workplace, it is very difficult to verify compliance with child labour laws without the cooperation of families and other local actors and authorities.

3. Low level of awareness of families about the harmful effects of child labour

Communities with child labourers on family farms often know very little about the effects of child labour on the health and future development of children. There is no awareness of alternative practices. Social and cultural constructions are at play; there are different ideas of what is in the best interest of the child and different opinions may exist on what is potentially beneficial or harmful to children. Specifically, children are frequently seen to be just “helping out”, despite the many hours they spend working in agriculture. Boys and girls are usually covering different roles: there is a gender differentiation of tasks and observers need to take it into account. For instance, girls are very often carrying out the burden of household chores and fetch the water needed for cooking, cleaning, washing and drinking. In many countries, domestic work is not viewed as work per se and domestic chores are considered as work by the ILO conventions only when those tasks are performed for a third party[22]. Girls involved in domestic work on top of agricultural work may be in situation of/tantamount to “child labour”.

3. Children’s involvement in the agricultural subsectors

Child labour in the agricultural subsectors varies widely depending on the working environment and the hazards and health risks involved. Many activities interfere with children's schooling. Combining agricultural tasks with school usually becomes more difficult with age, because in rural areas secondary schools are often further away from home than primary schools. Distance is especially a problem for girls who are more vulnerable to (sexual) harassment.[23]

This chapter concentrates on children's involvement in the various agricultural subsectors, highlighting their respective characteristics, tasks and common hazards. In general, children are at greater risk than adults, because their minds and bodies are still developing. A number of biological and behavioural factors increase their exposure to hazards and their susceptibility to harm from them. Damage to their health can go unnoticed for years. A detailed list of the children's tasks, hazards and health risks in the various subsectors can be found in Appendix II.

3.1 Crop production

Crop production comprises a wide range of commodities, but children's tasks are usually quite similar. Children are involved in every stage of crop production: from land preparation, planting and weeding to harvesting and processing. The work that children perform in crop production is often invisible and goes unacknowledged for many reasons: they are helping their parents; they are doing piecework or working under a quota system on larger farms; or they may be in migrant worker families.[24]

Health hazards in crop production can vary widely depending on the specific farming environment. Nevertheless, crop production implies various typical, and serious, hazards for children: exposure to sharp tools and dangerous machinery, injuries from animals, exposure to extreme environmental conditions, exposure to agrochemicals; long working hours in fields (especially in extreme weather conditions); and physically strenuous or repetitive activities.[25]

Typical tasks of children

- Preparing land

- Working with drought animals for ploughing

- Transporting crops

- Planting seedlings

- Weeding

- Applying fertilizers

- Spraying chemicals

- Harvesting

- Processing collected crops

3.2 Livestock

Children's activities in the livestock sector vary from simply helping out with light work to situations of worst forms of child labour. Some children's tasks are often categorized locally as domestic chores that contribute to livestock production, such as collecting grass for cattle, cleaning out cowsheds and looking after small livestock for domestic consumption.

Livestock activities imply numerous hazards and risks for children. Health risks are mainly based on the close contact with animals that exposes them to diseases transmitted by animals and animal substances. Some children also have to stay with the cattle overnight exposing them to the risk of attack. Furthermore, time-consuming activities, such as herding, can negatively influence formal school attendance.

Typical tasks of children

- Herding animals

- Feeding animals

- Cleaning animals

- Collecting fodder and water

- Cleaning out animal sheds

- Looking after small livestock for domestic consumption

- Working in dairy production, slaughterhouses and other meat-processing operations

3.3 Fisheries and aquaculture

In fisheries and aquaculture, children are engaged in a wide variety of activities, comprising harvesting and farming of fish in capture fishing and aquaculture and all associated operations (processing, marketing and other post-harvest activities), as well as upstream industries such as net-making and boatbuilding. Child labour in fisheries and aquaculture is particularly widespread in the small- and medium-scale sectors of the informal economy. Many of the sector-specific activities fall within the scope of the worst forms of child labour. Both girls and boys are involved in fisheries: in general, boys tend to be more involved in fishing and girls in post-harvest activities.[26] In the fisheries sector, many children work in circumstances that are incompatible with regular school attendance.[27]

In the fisheries sector, many of the hazards faced by children are related to the physically demanding work and long and irregular working hours. The periods spent on the boat can be extremely long, with work beginning very early in the morning and/or lasting until night.[28] Exposure to noise, poison or toxics, physically demanding tasks, such as carrying heavy loads and operating certain types of equipment, and high-risk diving are all dangerous for children and their health.

Typical tasks of children

Onboard: diving for fish or to free snagged nets; draining boats; handling and repairing nets; herding fish into nets; crewing on fishing vessels; shovelling ice.

Onshore: guarding fishing vessels in docks, piers and harbours; loading and unloading fish; sorting and cleaning fish; salting, smoking and drying fish; shovelling ice; transporting and selling fish.

Offshore on fishing platforms: lifting heavy nets of fish using hand cranes; sorting, boiling and drying fish.

In factories: sorting, slicing, filleting, salting, smoking, curing, peeling (shrimps), drying, packing, boiling and shelling various types of seafood.

Additional tasks: making and repairing nets; boatbuilding; waxing and painting boats; looking after outboard engines; performing household chores in the family and community.

Aquaculture: feeding and fertilizing; cleaning ponds; harvesting fish; collecting shrimp or seed; farming and processing seaweed.[26]

Fishery sector is often characterized by migration and mobility, used as livelihood strategies. Children are then migrating with their communities or parents and the prevalence of child labour situation in fisheries is often linked to migration. Migrant communities also lack secure access to health and other social services and may suffer from marginalization and inadequate integration in local communities which further increase the situation of vulnerability of child labourers.

3.4 Forestry

Child labour is found in many forest-dependent communities, mainly in remote areas. In addition to work in family-based forestry, children often work under subcontractual arrangements and receive their payment in food and clothing. Most children in this sector are in their early teens because the tasks require physical strength.

Working in the forest exposes children to several health and safety hazards such as falls from ladders and trees, cuts or extreme temperatures.

The isolation and migration which are typical of the forestry sector are a hindrance to school enrolment and attendance,[30] and many child labourers in the forestry sector are school dropouts. With the exception of forestry plantation (e.g. rubber), there is very little information about the incidence and characteristics of child labour in this sector. Further attention to and research on child labour in forestry is needed.

Typical tasks of children

- Climbing trees to harvest fruits and spices

- Collecting honey from beehives

- Cutting rubber

- Planting

PART 2:

M&E OF PROGRAMME IMPACTS
ON CHILD LABOUR

This part of the Handbook introduces the criteria for assessing child labour and focuses on three stages of the programme cycle: planning, monitoring and evaluation. It explains the three stages and describes how the child labour topic can be integrated into each one. Detailed explanations are given of the different steps for assessing programme impacts on child labour: preparation, data collection, data analysis and follow-up.

1. Criteria for assessing child labour

The international Conventions on child labour and the respective national legal frameworks form the basis for the assessment of child labour. In line with this legal foundation, the Handbook presents the six criteria that must be considered in a child labour and programme impact assessment. These criteria allow for the differentiation between age-appropriate tasks and child labour; they are the basis of all tools included in the TOOLKIT and are used in the guidelines to analyse the tools.

1.1 Must-know criteria

1. Age of the child

The child's age – in combination with the working tasks and the working hours – is the main criterion for defining child labour. The age thresholds are defined in international Conventions, but governments have the option to adapt the minimum working age to their national context (within certain parameters).

2. Working tasks of the child

It is necessary to examine in detail the child's working tasks, more specifically the child's involvement in agricultural activities in family-based businesses. It is not always easy to distinguish between agricultural tasks and household chores (e.g. fetching water, preparing fodder); it is, therefore, important to also consider the child's activities in his or her own home. For a broader overview, it is important to take into account paid or unpaid work activities outside the family context in formal or informal sectors.

3. Working hours per day/week

In addition to the child's working tasks, it is necessary to obtain information about the working hours. National legislation should determine the working hours for permissible light work. If they are not specified, a cut-off point of 14 hours per week can be used.[31]

4. Hazards associated with the agricultural tasks

The hazards associated with the working tasks play an important role in characterizing whether the child's work is considered child labour or not. The signatory states of the ILO Conventions are asked to develop a “Hazardous Work List” detailing what work and working conditions are prohibited for children under the age of 18 in that country. In addition, Appendix II of this Handbook provides an overview of children's tasks in the agricultural subsectors, including the associated hazards and health risks.

5. Impacts of the child's work on their health

In addition to the work hazards, the likely impact of the child's work on their health needs to be assessed. The child's working tasks should not interfere with their health; this criterion therefore covers health risks associated with agricultural tasks, as well as work-related accidents or diseases.

6. Impacts of the child's work on their education

Child labour is also defined by its impact on the child's education. These impacts are mainly on the child's school enrolment or drop-out and the regularity of school attendance as well as performance.

1.2 Must-know background information

In addition to the six must-know criteria, must-know background information: the sex of the child and the characteristics of the child's household, strongly contribute to the usefulness of the assessment.

1. Sex of the child

Gender roles, birth order and cultural norms influence the type of work traditionally performed by boys and girls, the number of hours worked and who gets an education; it is, therefore, essential to include the child's sex in the child labour assessment. Disaggregating data on child labour according to sex is particularly important as ILO research attests that girls often work in the worst forms of child labour.[32] This reality is related to the low status given to girls and women in many societies. For the same reason, the coping strategies adopted by girls differ from those of boys in many circumstances, as they are married at a young age or are sent elsewhere to do domestic chores.

2. Household characteristics

The characteristics of the household in which the child lives can influence the child's work. Aspects that might be considered in the assessment are the nature of the household's economic activities, the amount of land and the household's income. The head of the household, the number of household members and their family relationship may also be relevant. In some countries or regions, it could be very important to consider the household's class, religion or ethnicity.

The national, regional or local social framework influences the child’s daily life and work. Knowledge about the education and health system in the programme region or the cultural perception of child labour is useful for understanding the situation of children in general.

2. Integrating the child labour topic in the programme cycle

2.1 Programme cycle

The programme cycle describes the way in which development programmes are planned and carried out. A “cycle” illustrates a continuous process in which each stage provides the foundation for the next. The generic programme cycle consists of six stages. While the Handbook focuses on the three stages of planning, monitoring and evaluation, it is applicable in all six stages. The child labour topic can be integrated in each step of the cycle, depending on the programme design. In practice, the duration and importance of each stage may vary between programmes.

2.2 Planning

Most development programmes are designed on the basis of the Logical Framework Approach (LFA) and/or results-based management (RBM). In addition, the Theory of Change broadens the picture to consider external effects and unintended impacts from the start. These approaches share the same overall purpose: to describe how the programme will lead to results and to support critical reflection during the programme's lifetime. The approaches are continually updated throughout programme implementation and they provide an essential resource for monitoring and evaluation. The M&E Handbook is applicable, regardless of the programme's planning and management approach.

Baseline

A baseline study is conducted for the set of indicators and can be used to assess programme achievements. “When compared with the condition of the same indicators at some point during implementation and post-operation, the baseline study forms the basis for a ‘before and after' assessment or a ‘change over time' assessment”.[33]

Ideally, agricultural programmes consider the child labour topic in the needs assessment and incorporate it in the planning and design phase. Its inclusion helps reduce the likelihood of negative impacts of the programme and enhance potential positive impacts on the children's working situation. Wherever possible, baseline data including child labour criteria should be gathered right at the start of the programme. This facilitates the ongoing monitoring and evaluation process and the data are a useful basis for comparing eventual changes.

2.3 Monitoring

Monitoring is an ongoing process and involves the systematic collection and analysis of data related to specified indicators or emerging from guiding questions. It provides information about the current extent of progress and achievements of a development programme. Monitoring activities should be an integral part of the programme's operation plan. Dates, tasks and responsibilities for the monitoring should be clearly assigned. Throughout the monitoring process, the active and effective participation of beneficiaries should be assured.

Participation of beneficiaries

Participation provides a basis for mutual learning and contributes to the programme's legitimacy and accountability. Complementing participatory tools, joint reflection workshops can be used to discuss findings of the monitoring with the target group and to include their opinions and perceptions in the further process.

Monitoring has several major functions:

- It enables verification of whether the programme is on target.

- It assists programme management in the decision-making process.

- It supports awareness-raising, mutual learning and knowledge-sharing among programme staff and beneficiaries.

Monitoring the impacts of the child labour topic enables an agricultural programme to verify whether its activities lead to negative impacts on the working situation of children. It therefore serves as an early warning system to prompt the revision of the programme strategy if necessary. On the other hand, positive impacts on the working situation of children can be identified and strengthened. Impact monitoring requires detailed and accurate preparation and a broad participation of programme staff and beneficiaries. It is particularly important for agricultural programmes where impacts on child labour have not yet been considered, despite the fact that the activities probably affect the situation of working children.

2.4 Evaluation

While monitoring supervises and controls the ongoing implementation process of the programme, an evaluation is an appraisal of a programme's performance at a certain point in time. The findings of an evaluation are not only for use by programme management and steering, but are communicated to stakeholders, development partners and donors. They therefore prove legitimacy and accountability of the intervention.

Criteria for evaluation

Relevance: Is the programme suited to the priorities of the target group and donor?

Effectiveness: To what extent is the programme attaining its objectives?

Efficiency: Are the programme's outputs in relation to its inputs?

Impact: What changes does the programme produce?

Sustainability: Is the programme socially, environmentally and financially sustainable.[34]

Adapted from OECD-DAC

Evaluation examines whether a programme achieved its objective and what changes the intervention produced.[35] According to the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) of the Organisation for Economic Co-Operation (OECD), there are five key criteria that need to be considered when evaluating development programmes. An evaluation can be conducted midway through the programme, upon completion of the programme, or retrospectively some time after the end of the programme.

Regardless of the timing, the child labour topic can be integrated in all stages of a typical evaluation process. When establishing the terms for the evaluation, a detailed assessment of the programme's impacts on child labour should be explicitly agreed upon. The design of the evaluation depends on whether the programme integrated the child labour topic in the planning and monitoring stages or whether it is to be an on-the-spot evaluation. A final evaluation helps identify areas of good performance and lessons learned that can be useful for future programmes.

3. Steps for assessing programme impacts on child labour

The following explanation of the assessment of programme impacts on child labour focuses on three different stages of the programme cycle: planning, monitoring and evaluation. The assessment of the impacts of agricultural programmes on child labour comprises four main steps:

1. Preparation of the process

2. Data collection

3. Data analysis

4. Follow-up

Regardless of whether the child labour topic is integrated from the very beginning of the programme cycle or whether it is incorporated during the monitoring or evaluation process at a later stage, the assessment of programme impacts on child labour always follows these four main steps. Depending on the stage of a programme cycle (planning, monitoring or evaluation), some specific considerations need to be made while conducting the assessment. These are explained at the relative points in the Handbook.

Table 5 presents in detail the steps to follow during preparation, data collection, data analysis and follow-up. It indicates whether these steps should be considered in the planning, monitoring or evaluation process. It is important to follow all the steps to assess a programme's impacts on child labour; however, the extent of each process step will vary depending on the resources of the programme.

The process steps follow a typical programme cycle. The presentation here of the process steps is linear, but they may be implemented in parallel or in a different order. The steps can therefore easily be included in an existing programme design. Since most of the process steps are well known to programme designers, only those regarding the integration of child labour assessment are explained in detail.

3.1 Preparation of the process

The assessment of programme impacts on child labour requires different preparatory steps:

1. Research on the child labour situation

2. Identification of actual and/or potential programme impacts on child labour

3. Identification of relevant stakeholders, their roles and interests

4. Formulation of indicators

5. Formulation of guiding questions

1. Research on the child labour situation

Regardless of when the child labour topic is integrated into the programme (at the planning, monitoring or evaluation stage), the first step of the preparation process should always be research on the current child labour situation in the programme region.

A country's national legislation is supposed to define which tasks and conditions come under permissible “light work” and which constitute “hazardous child labour”. It is, therefore, essential to consult the national legal framework on child labour and obtain information on the following:

- Ratification of the ILO Conventions on child labour.

- The national legislation on child labour. Child labour might be covered, for example, under labour legislation, agricultural laws, education laws, social protection policies or child protection legislation.

- National policies on child labour (e.g. the National Action Plan Against Child Labour or “Hazardous Tasks Lists”).

Even if a country has not ratified the ILO Conventions on child labour, the objective of the elimination of child labour is mandatory for all ILO member States as child labour is a core labour standard. The Conventions should always guide the provisions of national legislation.

In order to obtain an overview of the current child labour situation, it is advisable to consider all country levels: national, regional and local.

Guiding questions for research on the child labour situation

- How high is the prevalence of child labour in the country/programme region?

- What are the main agricultural goods produced in the country/programme region?

- How many children work in the agricultural sector/subsectors?

- What are the main tasks of children working in agriculture? Are there differences between sex and age groups?

- What are the main hazards and health risks for children working in agriculture?

- What are the main reasons for child labour?

- What are the main factors influencing the child labour situation? Are there any factors specific to the region (e.g. labour migration)?

- Does compulsory schooling exist in the country? How many hours a day do children go to school?

2. Identification of actual and/or potential programme impacts on child labour

PROGRAMME IMPACT ANALYSIS and EXTENDED PROGRAMME IMPACT ANALYSIS are tools to reflect on how activities, outputs or outcomes of a programme may impact the child labour situation.

They are adapted to both the planning and the M&E process, but exactly how the tools are applied varies depending on whether they are used at the beginning of or during the course of a running programme.

Application of the tools in the planning process requires a brainstorming on the potential positive and negative impacts of the programme on child labour, while their use during an already-running programme requires a brainstorming on actual impacts on child labour (if the programme has been running for some time, the actual impacts may be observable). In both cases, the identification of potential or actual impacts is the first step towards formulating child labour indicators for further M&E purposes.

When applying a Theory of change model or elaborating a cause–effect diagram during the planning phase of your programme, it is advisable to include the child labour topic directly and to think about the potential positive and/or negative impacts of the programme on child labour.

3. Identification of relevant stakeholders, their roles and interests

The identification of relevant stakeholders is a crucial step in the preparation process. In both planning and M&E, it is necessary to actively engage key stakeholders and obtain their permission, support and commitment in order to successfully collaborate on the child labour topic. Children, community leaders, local or national authorities and civil society organizations should all be involved.

Useful tools for identifying relevant stakeholders are the STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS and the VENN DIAGRAM.

Once the relevant stakeholders have been identified, they need to have a common understanding of the process. It is important to clarify the roles and contributions of the different stakeholders and consider their different interests and needs.

4. Formulation of indicators

When the child labour topic is incorporated into a programme from the beginning, it is advisable to formulate indicators early on, since indicators facilitate and structure the M&E process. If, on the other hand, the child labour topic has not been considered in the planning stage of a programme, but is to be considered in a running programme or in an evaluation, indicators need to be prepared. An alternative to the formulation of indicators is the formulation of “guiding questions” (explained below).

Indicator

An indicator is a “quantitative or qualitative factor or variable that provides a simple and reliable means to measure achievement, to reflect the changes connected to an intervention, or to help assess the performance of a development actor”.[36]

To assess the impacts of agricultural programme interventions on child labour, indicators need to relate programme activities to the child labour topic. So-called “child labour indicators” provide information on the programme's performance in terms of reducing child labour, and should not be confused with indicators of the programme's broader performance in terms of achieving its intended impacts. SMART indicators are recommended for their manageability.

What is a SMART indicator?

Specific: The indicator targets a specific area for improvement.

Measurable: The indicator is definitely measurable and the required data can be collected in appropriate time and with acceptable effort.

Achievable: The targeted result is realistic.

Relevant: The indicator captures the essential regarding the objectives and the changes in the target group.

Time-bound: The indicator specifies the time by which the result can be achieved.

The (actual and/or potential) programme impacts on child labour, identified by conducting a PROGRAMME IMPACT ANALYSIS or an EXTENDED PROGRAMME IMPACT ANALYSIS, are useful for formulating child labour indicators. On the basis of the identified impacts, the programme staff and beneficiaries are able to develop indicators to maximize identified positive impacts or to prevent negative ones.

Once the child labour indicators have been formulated, it is necessary to adapt the tools in the TOOLKIT to the required purpose, modifying them to fit the formulated indicators. Depending on the information required to monitor or evaluate the indicators, it must be decided which tool is appropriate and what information sources need to be consulted.

Child labour indicators related to children

Child labour indicators need to be consistent with international labour standards on child labour as defined by the ILO Conventions 138 and 182 and national legislation. Therefore, indicators should cover the following:

- Working children below the legal working age

- Children above the legal working age involved in hazardous work

- Children engaged in other worst forms of child labour

There is no standard list of child labour indicators adapted to all situations. Indicators must be specific to the programme context and need to be selected on the basis of the child labour dynamics in the different agricultural subsectors. In most cases, indicators could be combined to provide a more complete picture.

Examples of child labour indicators related to children

- Reduction in percentage of children under the legal working age working in agriculture.

- Reduction in percentage of children engaged in hazardous work in agriculture.

Child labour indicators at household level

Indicators at household level focus on the factors influencing a family's decision to make the children work. Possible factors include the family's income, assets or productivity, gender discrimination and lack of awareness of the negative impacts of child labour.

Many agricultural programmes, especially those directly targeting producers, may already incorporate indicators on their impacts at household level.

Indicators related to output might measure whether the goods and services provided by the programme adequately address child labour, for example if agricultural extension programmes include child labour. At outcome level, the indicators would measure if the producers receiving the extension improve their knowledge of child labour prevention and take appropriate action. At impact level, the indicators should measure the reduction in child labourers.

Examples of child labour indicators at household level

- Reduction in percentage of households with child labourers employed in agriculture.

- Percentage of households aware of negative consequences of child labour.

Child labour indicators at community level

These indicators measure the awareness of the community (producers, grassroots organizations, village chiefs etc.) about prevention/reduction/elimination of child labour in agriculture. The proposed indicators relate to outcomes and impacts. They address different stakeholders and can be used separately.

Examples of child labour indicators at community level

- Percentage of producers' organizations carrying out actions against child labour.

- Number of community/local organizations engaging in child labour monitoring.

- Number of community initiatives to raise awareness about child labour and the protection of children's rights.

Child labour indicators at policy level

Impact indicators at policy level measure the change in local and national capacity to address child labour in agriculture (government agricultural agencies, provincial and local governments, sectoral producers' organizations etc.). These indicators relate mainly to outcomes and impacts. They can be used separately or combined, depending on the policy level addressed.

Examples of child labour indicators at policy level

- Number of agricultural development policies or programmes integrating child labour in their strategies/objectives.

- Number of agricultural support services (e.g. agricultural extension services) that include child labour.

- Budget in agricultural development policies or programmes allocated to child labour-related objectives (as a percentage of the total budget).

- Number of government agencies (ministries of agriculture, agricultural development agencies etc.) that incorporate child labour into their policy agenda.

5. Formulation of guiding questions

A possible extension of or alternative to the formulation of indicators is the formulation of guiding questions. Guiding questions help in planning the M&E process and are useful for data collection.

If the child labour topic was not included in the planning stage of a programme, but is to be considered in a running programme or in an evaluation, there are no indicators on child labour. Nevertheless, it is still possible to assess programme impacts on child labour. In this case, the formulation of guiding questions facilitates and structures the M&E process.

Although guiding questions are not as specific as indicators, they may support the assessment of the unintended consequences of programme activities. As when formulating indicators, guiding questions can be related to programme impacts at different levels (e.g. household or community) as well as to the results chain of a programme.

A PROGRAMME IMPACT ANALYSIS or an EXTENDED PROGRAMME IMPACT ANALYSIS can be conducted to identify the (actual and/or potential) programme impacts on child labour, which can be used to formulate guiding questions.

Child labour indicators related to the results chain

Another way to classify indicators is according to the level of the results chain. In this case, indicators are associated with output, outcome and long-term impact. However, it is not necessary to build child labour indicators at all levels of the results chain.

Indicators related to outputs

Indicators for the goods and services provided (e.g. improved ploughing machines or technical assistance for small-scale aquaculture), which are usually associated with output levels, measure whether the products and services delivered by the programme adequately incorporate the child labour topic and if user/recipient skills and capacities are improved. For instance, the indicators measure whether agricultural extension programmes include the topic of child labour.

Indicators related to outcomes

These indicators relate to behavioural changes, i.e. what target groups do differently as a result of receiving the products and services. Indicators at this level measure, for example, whether agricultural producers are applying measures to prevent children's engagement in hazardous activities, or whether policy-makers are incorporating the child labour topic into agricultural development programmes.

Indicators related to impacts

Indicators for the programme's medium- and long-term results (outcomes and impacts) on child labour typically measure the incidence of child labour. These indicators measure the programme's ultimate effect on the prevention, reduction and elimination of child labour. They can specifically relate to impacts a programme might have at household, community or policy level.

Indicators should be realistic and not over ambitious. They have to draw on the programme's capacity to address child labour within its scope. For example, information related to school attendance is relevant, but goes beyond the objectives of agricultural programmes. Therefore, it is typically beyond the scope and feasibility of agricultural programmes to monitor school attendance. However, where such data are available or can be collected by partners, they may provide very useful insights into any changes in school attendance during and after programme implementation.

Examples of child labour-related guiding questions

- Does the number of children undertaking hazardous tasks decrease as a result of the programme activities?

- Does the programme intervention increase gender-related differences and is there a difference in the effect on boys' and girls' situations?

- Does the introduction of new agricultural techniques and practices lead to an increase/decrease in the workload of smallholder farmers, and is this workload transferred to children?

- Does the programme contribute to an increased income of smallholder farmers and does this improve the working situation of children?

- Does the programme have any impact on the migration of adults leading to an increased workload for remaining family members, and is this workload transferred to children?

- Does the number of producers' organizations carrying out actions against child labour in agriculture increase?

3.2 Data collection

Data collection is central to the M&E process and comprises the four steps listed below. Where the planning process comprises a baseline survey, these steps should be considered in the planning stage.

1. Research on existing secondary data

2. Identification of tools for data collection

3. Selection of the sample

4. Collection of data

1. Research on Existing Secondary Data

The six must-know criteria introduced in the chapter CRITERIA FOR ASSESSING CHILD LABOUR cover the main kinds of data required for the child labour and programme impact assessment. When secondary data relative to these criteria are available in the programme region, when they meet certain methodological standards and can be derived from a reliable source, only the missing data need to be collected. The secondary data can then be treated like the collected primary data and analysed according to the same criteria.

When, on the other hand, secondary data cannot substitute the collection of primary data, they are nevertheless useful. Secondary data form an essential basis for adapting the tools and templates in the TOOLKIT to the specific situation in the programme region and for cross-checking the collected data during the M&E process.

Data on child labour and the child labour situation in agriculture come from a range of sources and are often used in combination. Possible data sources include the following:

- Statistics institutions

- National population censuses

- Existing national household surveys

- Special child labour studies and surveys

Further sources of secondary data could be identified by the STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS and the VENN DIAGRAM or during the Research on the Child Labour Situation in the preparation phase.

2. Identification of tools for data collection

The TOOLKIT provides several tools for data collection. Each tool is designed for a different purpose and the TOOLKIT also includes a set of analytical methods and techniques appropriate for planning, monitoring and evaluation. The Handbook provides a mix of qualitative and quantitative methods, and the TOOLKIT includes a set of participatory methods.

The Handbook tools can be used for:

- exploring stakeholders and characteristics of the programme region;

- assessing the perception and causes of child labour;

- gathering individual data on child labour;

- analysing the programme impacts; and

- visualizing the findings.

The different tools can be applied during focus group discussions, interviews or programme staff discussions.

It is recommended to use a combination of different tools during data collection, in order to obtain diverse data which can be cross-checked against each other. With a combination of tools, the strengths of one can overcome the potential weaknesses of another, and the data obtained are therefore more reliable.

Guiding questions for tool selection

? Which tool can provide the information needed?

? Which combination of tools can produce meaningful results?

? What tools are feasible in terms of time and money?

? Who will collect the data? What methods correspond to the skills of the staff?

? Are the persons responsible for collecting the data sufficiently qualified or do they need further training?

? What methods are already known and tested?

The following table presents what kind of information can be gathered by which tools. Some tools are listed several times in the table, since they are instrumental in collecting different kinds of information.

3. Selection of the sample

Most agricultural programmes focus on a larger population than that covered in the data collection. It is therefore necessary to define a sample from the entire population of interest. A qualitative sample is recommended for two reasons: agricultural programmes have limited resources; and the Handbook aims to evaluate the impacts of agricultural programmes on child labour, and not to make a full child labour assessment. If the programme approach and resources are appropriate for a quantitative survey, the sample size and structure should be designed accordingly. In all cases, for successful data collection, sampling must be done with care: the sample should be selected with the cooperation of relevant stakeholders with good knowledge of the population, whether from surveys or national censuses.

The underlying sample unit for the case samplings is the household. Different sets of households (i.e. vulnerable, poor and better off) should be considered in order to gain an insight into the several dimensions of child labour and to cover as many potential impacts of the programme as possible.

Guiding questions for sampling

? What is the population of interest the sample should be selected from?

? What sample size can be covered in the data collection?

? How should the sample be selected?

? How can the results from the sample be used to draw conclusions for the entire population of interest?

Qualitative sampling for baseline data collection, for monitoring and for evaluating the impacts of agricultural programmes on child labour should be adapted to the purpose of the data collection. The sampling method depends on the household characteristics.

Typical case sampling

Typical case sampling allows an in-depth description of a few cases and provides an overview of the child labour situation in the target area. The descriptions of these typical cases are merely illustrative and they cannot be generalized for the whole group.

Most vulnerable case sampling

This sampling includes households which may be most vulnerable to child labour. These households may be able to provide insights into child labour and help identify contributing factors for the reduction of child labour. Several criteria may be used to describe the vulnerability of households to child labour (Table 7).

Extreme case sampling

The selection of extreme cases, such as the poorest and the wealthiest households in the target area of the programme, is a powerful and rapid strategy to identify distinct child labour situations and a range of possible programme impacts.

Grade of programme benefits sampling

This sampling divides the households on the basis of the benefits they receive from the programme. This method is particularly helpful for focusing on the programme and linking the programmes activities with the child labour situation.

Agricultural subsector sampling

This approach is useful for understanding the occurrence of child labour in a specific agricultural subsector. When a high prevalence of child labour and hazardous work in certain tasks in a subsector is reported (or assumed), a good strategy is to focus on these activities and identify programme impacts on specific tasks of children.

4. Collection of data

The next step is to collect the data using the chosen tools. The TOOLKIT provides details for each tool. To avoid errors and bias, it is necessary to collect and cross-check data from a variety of sources. The collected data should be documented carefully: the more detailed and accurate the documentation, the easier the data analysis.

As child labour is a sensitive topic, the following aspects should be considered to maximize the responsiveness and effectiveness of the data collection.

Child labour is illegal and families may worry about telling the truth.

- Be responsive when dealing with the topic of child labour and avoid using the term “child labour” when talking to parents or children. It is better to use terms like “helping”, “assisting” or “being involved”.

- Avoid judging the parents' behaviour and clarify that the aim of the research is to learn about the impacts of agricultural programmes on child labour and improve their effects on the working situation of children

Children’s work is not perceived as child labour.

- Encourage parents and children to describe the children's tasks in as much detail as possible, in order to get an idea of whether the children's work is hazardous.

- Ask about “daily activities” rather than “working activities” of the child, because many activities of children are not perceived as work.

3.3 Data analysis

The analysis of collected data involves processing, cross-checking and interpreting the information. Data analysis serves two main purposes:

- Identification of the child labour situation in the programme region

- Identification of the programme's impacts on the child labour situation

In order to collect data for these two purposes, the TOOLKIT provides various tools. Table 6 provides an overview of what kinds of information can be gathered using which tools.

A low level of awareness exists with regard to the effects of child labour on health.

- Become familiar with the typical hazards and health risks for children and keep them in mind during the discussion.

- Ask directly if the child is doing hazardous tasks.

1. Analysis categories

The collected data need to be carefully processed and interpreted. For data comparison, processing should always be done using the same analysis categories, derived from the “must-know criteria for assessing child labour”:

2. Identifying the child labour situation in the programme region

Individual interviews with beneficiaries and children (including daily schedules) and household surveys are the main source of data for identifying child labour. Conclusions can then be drawn on the exact number of child labourers in the chosen sample.

To process the collected data, follow seven steps (see box).

Guiding questions for sampling

1. Complete the analysis table below for every child individually. Fill in the empty boxes in the first row: the questions in subsequent rows form the structure of the analysis process.

2. Note the source of the data in the first box, i.e. place and date of interview (and number if interviews are numbered consecutively).

3. Fill in the next box with the information on the child's age and sex. Consult the national law for the legal working age of children. Once the age category has been established, proceed to the next questions in the row by following the arrows.

4. Answer the relative questions concerning the child's working hours, working tasks, working hazards, health and school situation. It may be necessary to consult existing guidelines on age-appropriate tasks, guidelines on light work or “hazardous tasks lists”. Fill in the answers to the questions (“yes” or “no”) in the respective boxes.

5. If one of the answers is “yes”, the work of the child is identified as child labour.

6. Summarize the results on one page for an overview of the number of children identified as child labourers.

7. Use the SPIDER DIAGRAM to visualize findings and changes over time.

In addition, the data should be analysed with regard to specific differences between boys and girls.

Guiding questions for a gender-specific analysis

? Are more boys or more girls working as child labourers?

? What is the most common sector of work for girls and the most common one for boys?

? Are there specific tasks typically performed by boys or by girls?

? Are boys exposed to different kinds of hazards than girls, and vice versa?

? Is there a difference between girls and boys with regard to school enrolment or school attendance due to working tasks?

? Is there a difference between boys and girls in terms of the number and type of work-related accidents and injuries?

After processing and analysing the data, examine in detail the households in which child labour was identified. Find out if any similarities exist between these households.

Examples of similarities between “child labour” households

- One or both parents have migrated for labour reasons.

- The number of household members is particularly high or low.

- The household is headed by a woman, grandparents or a child.

- The size of the cultivated land is particularly large or small.

- The households work in the same agricultural subsector (crops, livestock, fisheries, forestry).

The identified similarities might be useful for understanding the reasons for child labour and could serve as a basis for the adjustment of programme activities.

3. Identifying the programme impacts on the child labour situation

The main tools providing data on the impacts of your programme on child labour are the INFLUENCE MATRIX, the IMPACT DISCUSSION and the INTERVIEW WITH PROGRAMME BENEFICIARIES. The PROGRAMME IMPACT ANALYSIS and the EXTENDED PROGRAMME IMPACT ANALYSIS also provide useful information, especially if the tools were applied during a running programme and actual impacts were identified. An EXPERT INTERVIEW may also provide valuable information, for example if it was conducted with a village chief or another person with information about the programme's impacts on child labour.

The analysis of the programme's impacts on child labour is based on the categories adopted for the main analysis: work of children, health of children and education of children.

In order to analyse the collected data, write down all the information collected regarding the impacts of the programme on child labour in the analysis table (Table 10). Write the tools used in the top row and the information on the impacts of the programme activities in the boxes related to the various analysis criteria.

Connect the mentioned impacts to a specific programme activity when writing down the collected information.

Cross-check the different tools/sources of information used to guarantee the reliability of the collected information. Interpret the results of the different data sources and summarize the findings, especially if contradictory results emerge.

Use the SPIDER DIAGRAM to visualize the impacts of the various programme activities.

4. Connecting the findings.

If not already done, it is necessary to analyse the findings on the child labour situation in the programme region in relation to the findings on the impacts of the programme on the child labour situation.

If it is discovered that children conduct non-age-appropriate or hazardous tasks promoted through a programme activity, action must be taken and countersteering is needed.

If there are specific reasons for the occurrence of child labour in the programme area, the findings must be included in a subsequent programme staff or focus group discussion.

Compare the findings of the analysed data with earlier findings if there are already-existing data on child labour or on the impacts of the programme on child labour.

Use the SPIDER DIAGRAM to visualize changes over time.

3.4 Follow-up

The follow-up process for the programme's monitoring and evaluation comprises two major steps:

1. Sharing the findings

2. Adjusting the programme

1. Sharing the findings

The findings from the data collection should be discussed with:

- programme beneficiaries;

- relevant stakeholders; and

- programme staff.

Sharing the findings with the beneficiaries assures their effective participation. This is best done through focus group discussions. If data have been collected on child labour several times (or at least twice), a visualized SPIDER DIAGRAM can be used to discuss the changes with the beneficiaries. Subsequent steps and adjustments to the programme are further possible topics of discussion.

A joint workshop with the relevant stakeholder is useful to discuss the findings and mutually decide the next steps.

The findings of the monitoring should be reported within the programme. They represent an opportunity for awareness-raising about the child labour topic, as well as mutual learning and programme adjustment where necessary.

2. Adjusting the programme

If the identified impacts pose a negative effect on child labour, i.e. they increase child labour or foster activities considered hazardous, the programme should countersteer. Possible adjustments and solutions may already exist in the SOLUTION TREE. If the identified results have a positive effect, i.e. reduction in the prevalence of child labour in the programme region, a review should ascertain whether or not further capacities exist to enhance these positive effects.

If it is discovered that child labour is an important topic in the programme region and children are exposed to hazardous work and worst forms of child labour, but no programme impacts are identified, the findings should be disseminated to relevant stakeholders, other programmes in the region and/or local authorities, and possible joint activities to address the problem should be discussed.

The findings vary depending on the context and the kind of programme. It is, therefore, not possible to offer general recommendations for adjusting the programme. Nevertheless, some aspects and questions are relevant to many contexts. How the programme deals with the child labour topic depends on the context and, more importantly, on the individual capacities and resources. In any case, every agricultural programme should at least adopt a do-no-harm approach to child labour.

When parents and/or children do not perceive any hazards or health risks, despite the fact that the children are performing hazardous tasks, seek ways to raise awareness about hazards and health risks.

When many children have work-related accidents, address how the programme can contribute to the prevention of these accidents.

When the working hours of children increase due to the programme, examine what kinds of activity the children are increasingly doing and whether these tasks are hazardous or interfere with schooling. Discuss with the programme team and beneficiaries what approach to adopt.

When children are doing more hazardous tasks due to programme activities, an adjustment of the programme and its activities is inevitable.

General things to think about, when planning the programme adjustment

- When labour-saving technologies or practices reduce the demand for child labour in one particular area of activity, the child will not necessarily attend school instead. The supply and demand for child labour might be transferred to other areas of agricultural activity, unless awareness-raising about the benefits of education takes place and possibilities to easily access quality education are fostered.

- The reduction in working hours is not always the main goal of child labour-reducing activities. Even if children work fewer hours, the remaining work may be hazardous or take place under hazardous conditions.

- Not all agricultural tasks performed by children are damaging. Some activities represent an important opportunity for children to learn skills for future employment.

- Children normally contribute to their family's income with their agricultural work. Increasing family income often means better education and nutrition for children. Therefore, reducing the working hours of children in general may have negative impacts on livelihoods and consequently on the child's education and nutrition. Without doubt, hazardous work and child labour need to be prevented and reduced. However, programme staff must find ways to meet the increase in working hours resulting from programme activities without age appropriate tasks becoming child labour.

- When the programme includes training activities for children or field schools for children and youths, it is important to ensure that these activities are contributing to the prevention of child labour and do not exclude children of legal age for employment.

PART 3:

TOOLKIT

This part of the Handbook provides the toolkit.[37] The toolkit comprises a range of tools useful for assessing programme impacts on child labour. The purpose, potentials, limitations and implementing steps of every tool are explained in detail. There are examples of visualization, and templates are provided to facilitate application of the tools.

How to use the toolkit

This toolkit introduces methods of social research and data collection designed to assess child labour in family-based agriculture and to identify the programme's impacts on child labour. The tools are designed for the following purposes:

- Exploring stakeholders and characteristics of the programme region

- Assessing perception and causes of child labour

- Gathering individual data on child labour

- Analysing programme impacts

- Visualizing findings

The selection of tools available in the toolkit allows the integration of the child labour topic at different stages and in the programme cycle steps: planning, monitoring and evaluation.

PROGRAMME STAFF DISCUSSION

Staff of agricultural/food security programmes require clarity on how to prevent and reduce child labour in agriculture. The tools in this section will help programme staff to get a clearer idea on the relationships between their programmes and child labour and on how to measure that influence. The methods differ according to the objective pursued by the discussion, which can consist of:

- Understanding the impacts of the programme on child labour in agriculture;

- Having a clear overview of the stakeholders who can play a role in monitoring and evaluating child labour in agriculture in the programme area;

- Visualizing the available data and trends of child labour in agriculture.

Moreover, discussions among programme staff provide opportunities to learn about child labour in agriculture and can help to build group commitment for engaging in the prevention and reduction of child labour in agriculture. It allows the exchange of ideas and guides the thinking process on how the programme could monitor and evaluate child labour in agriculture.

HOW TO CONDUCT A DISCUSSION WITH YOUR PROGRAMME STAFF ON THIS TOPIC

STEP 1:

Define the concrete objective and expected outcome of the discussion and subsequently decide who of the programme staff should participate.

STEP 2:

Explain ahead of time the objective of the discussion to the invited programme staff and provide them with relevant background information and materials, such as for example Part I of this Handbook or the internet link to the FAO-ILO E-Learning Course on “End Child Labour in Agriculture”.

STEP 3:

If participants are not yet familiar with the topic of child labour in agriculture, start by letting them express their understanding and perceptions of what child labour is and what their perceived role of their agricultural programme vis à vis child labour is. Then move on to clarifying the definition of child labour in agriculture as well as the proposed role of the programme to help prevent, reduce or at least not increase child labour in agriculture.

After this initial clarification, move on to the actual objective and agenda of the discussion/exercise.

STEP 4:

During the discussion, make sure that that the meeting is facilitated in a way that ensures that the expected outcome is achieved, such as for example a plan of activities with a timeline. Document the meeting outcomes.

TOOL 1: PROGRAMME IMPACT ANALYSIS

Programme impact analysis can be used to identify the programme's impacts on child labour based on the assessment of planned or current programme activities. It can be used either for planning or for monitoring and evaluating the impacts of agricultural programmes.

When used in the programme planning phase, the identification of potential programme impacts on child labour is useful for the formulation of indicators on child labour. When used in the M&E process, the tool serves to identify the de facto impacts of the programme on child labour. The analysis is ideally conducted in a workshop with the joint programme staff in order to include all relevant perspectives.

HOW TO IMPLEMENT THE TOOL

STEP 1:

Consult the chapter “How do agricultural programmes influence child labour” and Appendix I of the Handbook for a general idea of the impacts of agricultural programmes on child labour. Appendix II of the Handbook provides an overview of the typical tasks performed by children, and the hazards and health risks in the different agricultural subsectors.

STEP 2:

Identify and discuss the (potential) impacts of your programme's activities on child labour. Consider the guiding questions in Table 13.

Programme impact analysis during the planning process: Discuss which envisaged programme activities might have positive or negative, direct or indirect impacts on child labour.

Programme impact analysis during the M&E process: Identify the relevant current or completed programme activities that have a positive or negative, direct or indirect impact on child labour.

STEP 3:

Discuss whether certain (envisaged) programme activities need further adjustment or revision to avoid (potential) negative direct or indirect impacts on children or whether (potential) positive impacts of activities on child labour can be further strengthened.

STEP 4:

Programme impact analysis during the planning process: Identify and discuss the most important potential positive or negative impacts of the programme on child labour which should be integrated into the set-up of the programme's M&E system.

Discuss the findings of the programme impact analysis with programme beneficiaries to obtain valuable insights into whether the perception of the target group coincides with the findings.

TOOL 2: EXTENDED PROGRAMME IMPACT ANALYSIS

As with programme impact analysis, extended programme impact analysis can be used either as a planning tool or as a tool for monitoring and evaluating the impacts of agricultural programmes on child labour. In addition, extended programme impact analysis also considers external factors when identifying potential or current programme impacts on child labour. Extended programme impact analysis therefore offers a broader picture and a more detailed analysis, but requires in-depth understanding of relevant external factors.

When used in the programme planning phase, the identification of potential programme impacts on child labour as well as relevant external factors is useful for the formulation of indicators on child labour. When used in the M&E process, on the other hand, the tool serves to identify the de facto impacts of the programme on child labour as well as relevant external factors. As an M&E tool, extended programme impact analysis is ideally carried out in a workshop together with the joint programme staff to include all relevant perspectives.

HOW TO IMPLEMENT THE TOOL

STEP 1:

Consult the chapter “How do agricultural programmes influence child labour” and Appendix I of the Handbook for a general idea about impacts of agricultural programmes on child labour. Appendix II of the Handbook provides an overview of the typical tasks performed by children, and the hazards and health risks in the different agricultural subsectors.

STEP 2:

Consider the programme's log frame; write the main activities, outputs, outcomes and impacts on cards and pin them on a board.

STEP 3:

Identify the impacts of the programme's activities, outputs and outcomes on child labour considering the guiding questions in Table 15. Write the identified impacts on cards.

STEP 4:

Assign the collected effects on child labour to the programme's log frame; discuss whether further effects are missing.

STEP 5:

Introduce the programme environment by discussing which external factors also influence the identified impacts and the child labour situation. Include the identified relevant external factors in the extended programme impact analysis.

Guiding questions

? Which external factors have a decisive influence on the programme's performance?

? Which external factors have a positive or negative, direct or indirect influence on child labour?

STEP 6:

Extended programme impact analysis as a planning tool: Identify and discuss the most important potential positive or negative impacts of the programme on child labour that should be integrated into the set-up of the programme's M&E system. Include the identified external factors which play an important role in these considerations.

Extended programme impact analysis as an M&E tool: Identify and discuss the most important positive or negative impacts of the programme on child labour. Discuss how to minimize negative and strengthen positive impacts. Identify and discuss also the most relevant external factors and consider how to deal with them when they interfere with the programme's performance.

EXAMPLE OF VISUALIZATION: EXTENDED PROGRAMME IMPACT ANALYSIS

TOOL 3: STAKEHOLDER MAP

The stakeholder map is a preparatory tool used to identify and map all relevant stakeholders in the programme area. The identified stakeholders can provide their relative expertise on child labour, their local knowledge may be decisive in dealing with child labour for political or legal reasons, and they can be a source of useful secondary data.

The stakeholder map can be conducted internally by the planning team or the programme staff. Additionally, a joint workshop held together with external stakeholders can help clarify the roles and interests of relevant stakeholders participating in the M&E process.

Develop a VENN DIAGRAM together with programme beneficiaries for useful insights into the perception of the target group concerning the role of certain stakeholders.

Involvement of relevant stakeholders is not only essential to the M&E process, but also to raise awareness about child labour among stakeholders.

HOW TO IMPLEMENT THE TOOL

STEP 1:

Identify the major groups of actors working on child labour in the programme region and the relevant stakeholders for further work on child labour. Relevant actors and stakeholders can be found in various areas (see box).

Governmental actors

- Ministries of agriculture, forestry, fisheries, aquaculture.

- Ministries, including of labour, education, health, children, youth, social protection, gender issues and planning, and local authorities (district and municipal)

- Statistics offices

- Labour and child labour inspectors and committees

- Child labour focal points

- School authorities (and teachers)

- Health authorities (and medical practitioners)

International organizations, multilateral and bilateral donors, implementing agencies, local organizations/institutions and programmes

- FAO

- ILO–International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC)

- United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)

- International NGOs working with children

- Local stakeholders

- National NGOs

- Agricultural producer organizations (e.g. cooperatives)

- Women's associations

- Traditional and/or religious authorities

Core stakeholders

Actors providing direct assistance to child labourers

Primary stakeholders

Actors in (eye) contact with child labourers.

Secondary stakeholders

Actors with an influence on child labour but not providing direct services.

Stakeholders who can make a difference to child labour in agriculture

- Emergency preparedness and response programme staff

- Labour saving technologies programme staff

- Water supply/management programme staff

- Integrated Pest Management programme staff

- Occupational safety and health programme staff

STEP 2:

Classify actors and stakeholders as primary or secondary and insert them in the stakeholder map.

STEP 3:

Classify stakeholders not only according to their relevance to the programme's aims; cluster stakeholders also in thematic groups or on the basis of their societal role (e.g. governmental actors, international organizations, NGOs, academia, economic actors, community-based organizations [CBOs]).

STEP 4:

Discuss and document the potential contributions of specific stakeholders to the child labour assessment using a cooperation plan (e.g Table 16). This plan can be developed internally or together with the stakeholders in the joint workshop, and it could mark the basis for future cooperation.

EXAMPLE OF VISUALIZATION: STAKEHOLDER MAP

EXAMPLE OF VISUALIZATION: COOPERATION PLAN

TOOL 4: SPIDER DIAGRAM

The spider diagram is a tool for visualizing the findings of previous data collection. It presents data in a clear and demonstrative way and is a preparatory step for discussing the findings with the programme beneficiaries in a focus group or with the programme staff.

The spider diagram can be used in two ways: either to visualize the results of a single data collection or to display changes over time. To visualize changes over time, it is necessary to collect data at least twice from the same sample in order to obtain reliable and comparable results. The spider diagram can be used to present data on child labour criteria, highlight the influence of agricultural programmes on child labour or compare results in different communities or villages.

HOW TO IMPLEMENT THE TOOL

STEP 1:

Decide what kind of data is to be visualized in the spider diagram and determine which criteria should be presented on the axes of the spider diagram, for example, various child labour criteria or different spatial units.

STEP 2:

Prepare the processed data from the interviews or focus group discussions on the basis of the determined criteria.

STEP 3:

Rate the results of the data collection. The rating depends on the chosen criteria and the kind of data.

STEP 4:

Prepare a flip chart paper (see the example of visualization) and fill in the values on each axis. After entering the values, connect them with a coloured marker. To visualize changes over time or different kinds of data in one diagram, use different colours.

STEP 5:

Discuss the visualized findings and possible programme impacts and solutions in an IMPACT DISCUSSION with the beneficiaries and/or with programme staff.

EXAMPLE OF VISUALIZATION: CHILD LABOUR CRITERIA

INTERVIEWS

Interviews are an effective tool for gathering relevant data on the child labour situation and on the programme's impacts on child labour. Interviews help find out about people's thoughts, ideas, actions and observations and are useful for exploring the nuances and complexities of real-life situations. There is a wide variety of interviews. However, this represents an introduction to a selection of the most relevant forms of interviews in view of obtaining information on child labour within an agriculture/food security programmes.

HOW TO CONDUCT AN INTERVIEW

STEP 1:

Become familiar with the interview guideline and, if necessary, adapt it to the local context. Print the guideline and add paper for further notes.

STEP 2:

Explain the purpose of the interview to the interviewee and indicate how long the interview will take. Explain who will have access to the interview content. Ask if there are any questions before you begin.

STEP 3:

Conduct the interview according to the interview guideline.

STEP 4:

During the interview, take detailed notes or record the interview with a Dictaphone.

STEP 5:

At the end of the interview, thank the interviewee for their time and ask if there is any information they would like to add. This provides the opportunity to talk about things the interviewee considers important, but which were not raised during the interview.

TOOL 5: INTERVIEW WITH PROGRAMME BENEFICIARY

Interviews with programme beneficiaries offer insights into the individual household situation of the interviewee and are useful for obtaining individual information about the child labour situation of the specific household. They also allow the assessment of the perceived impacts of agricultural programme activities on beneficiaries' daily lives.

Collect detailed information on the child's age and sex, his or her working activities and working hours. Make sure that this information can be related to each particular child.

TOOL 6: INTERVIEW WITH CHILDREN

Interviews with children provide an understanding of the individual child labour situation of the children. Conversations with children produce detailed information on the various tasks children perform, the time they spend on these activities, the hazards involved, and whether their working activities interfere with their schooling or health.

Remember that children often require far more guidance and support during interviews than adults do. Therefore, be constantly aware, flexible and able to modify the interview to meet the child's requirements and language levels.

Ask the parents' permission to interview their child, explain why you want to interview their child and how the information will be used.

TOOL 7: GUIDELINES FOR THE INTEGRATION OF A CHILD LABOUR MODULE INTO A HOUSEHOLD SURVEY

By integrating the child labour topic into an existing household survey, for example as part of a baseline assessment, it is possible to collect robust and quantitative data on specific household characteristics and the working situation of children. The data can be used as a comprehensive database for planning, monitoring and evaluation purposes.

HOW TO IMPLEMENT THE TOOL

The tool is designed to integrate the child labour topic in a household survey. The guideline (see box) lists the information required to assess child labour. It comprises core information about the household and a child labour module composed of all subjects relevant to the assessment of the child labour situation. The child labour module can be incorporated in the design of a household survey by formulating appropriate questions.

GUIDELINE ON INFORMATION TO BE CAPTURED IN A CHILD LABOUR MODULE FOR HOUSEHOLD SURVEY

Core information about the household

- Head of household: name, age, sex

- Household members: number, age, sex, relation to head of household

- Children in household: number, age, sex

- Economic activities of household members

- Migration of household members

Child labour module

- Work activities of children

- Agricultural tasks and/or household chores in the household

- Working duties outside the household

- Hazards of agricultural tasks / household chores / working duties

- Working hours per day

- Seasonal differences of the work

- Education of children

- School enrolment

- Regularity of school attendance

- Reasons for school absences

- Health situation of children

- Work-related accidents and diseases

The sections I-IV of the template I, questionnaire for interviews with programme beneficiaries can also be used for that purpose.

TOOL 8: DAILY SCHEDULE / DAILY CLOCK

The daily schedule / daily clock can be used to examine the daily activities and agricultural tasks of a child. Its visual nature makes it especially suitable for younger children. The daily schedule invites children to draw pictures of or write down their activities. The daily clock, on the other hand, visualizes children's activities and their duration in a 24-hour clock model, linking the activities and tasks directly with a time component. The tool should be used in small groups of 3–5 children. It exists a wide range of focus group exercises and only some of them are hereby featured and described. Some of the following selected tools could also be used in programme staff discussion. Yet, in the specific case of the Handbook, they represent a best choice for interactions with a wider range of stakeholders involved in agricultural/food security programmes.

HOW TO IMPLEMENT THE TOOL

STEP 1:

Choose the visualization form: the daily schedule is more open and flexible, while the daily clock already includes the hours spent on each activity.

STEP 2:

Explain the purpose and the procedure of the tool to the children.

STEP 3:

Ask the children to write or draw all the activities they perform every day from when they get up until they go to bed. Ensure that the activities are described in detail and include the children's agricultural tasks.

STEP 4:

If the children choose to draw, ask them to write what they are doing next to the picture. If the children cannot write, then write down the activities yourself.

STEP 5:

Check that every daily schedule / daily clock includes detailed individual information for each child (name, sex and age) as well as the location and date of realization.

STEP 6:

Discuss each daily schedule / daily clock with the respective child in order to obtain as many details as possible. The discussion can take place within the group or with each child individually. Guiding questions may be used (see box).

Hazardous Work

Working hours

? How many hours do you spend on each activity every day/week?

? Do you do the same activities every day of the week?

Hazardous Work

When you do agricultural tasks...

? ... do you use sharp tools: knifes, hooks, hoes, sickles etc.?

? ... do you use heavy machinery: saws, farm vehicles etc.?

? ... do you carry heavy objects: sandbags, water canisters etc.?

? ... do you spray pesticides?

? ... do you climb trees?

? ... do you swim or dive to catch fish?

? ... do you work at night?

? ... are there wild animals like snakes or insects?

Health

? Do you sometimes feel pain when doing agricultural tasks?

? Do you sometimes hurt yourself?

? Do you sometimes have accidents when doing agricultural tasks?

Education

? Do you go to school every day?

? Do you miss school sometimes?

? Why do you miss school?

EXAMPLE OF VISUALIZATION: DAILY CLOCK

TOOL 9: EXPERT INTERVIEW

Expert interviews provide consolidated knowledge on different topics of interest, for example, the child labour situation in the programme region, the educational situation, legislation, and governmental structures concerning child labour.

An expert interview can be used as a preparatory tool for gaining early insights into the child labour situation in the programme region, and this information can then be applied to adapt the various tools to the respective context. It is also an important source of information on child labour, education and health, and when conducted following data collection, it provides a useful opportunity for discussing the findings with an expert.

Adapt the suggested list of questions in the interview guideline to the specific interview partner. Cover all the questions on child labour and in addition, focus on topics specifically related to the interviewee's field of expertise (e.g. education, health).

FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION

A focus group discussion (FGD) is an opportunity to discuss within a group people's perceptions of and opinions on child labour and the impacts of agricultural programmes on their livelihoods and the child labour situation. Focus group discussions take place within a fixed time frame and focus on a limited number of questions. The facilitator's role is to moderate the discussion and to assure that participants keep focused and provide relevant information. While a wide range of different focus group exercises exist, only those most relevant for this handbook have been included in the toolbox. Some of these tools could also be used for the programme staff discussion.

HOW TO FORM A FOCUS GROUP

- The focus group should comprise 8–10 programme beneficiaries.

- The exact composition of a focus group depends on the topic and the aim of the discussion. In some cases homogeneity, in other cases heterogeneity of a group is useful. Aspects of homogeneity and heterogeneity may be sex, household characteristics or agricultural commodities produced.

HOW TO IMPLEMENT A FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION

STEP 1:

Become familiar with the guidelines and templates for conducting the FGD. If necessary, adapt them to your context.

STEP 2:

Introduce the purpose of the discussion and make sure that all participants have a common understanding of what you want to discuss. Explain why you want to discuss and how the results will be used.

STEP 3:

Moderate the discussion by listening carefully, summarizing participants' contributions and reflecting on their opinions and input evenly and fairly. Take detailed notes throughout the discussion.

STEP 4:

Thank the participants for their participation and time.

STEP 5:

Prepare a detailed report once the session is finished. Include in the transcript all relevant observations made during the discussion.

Be aware that a sensitive topic like child labour might make group members reluctant to provide insights into their personal situation in front of others. Try to avoid stigmatization by creating an atmosphere in which participants feel comfortable speaking openly.

TOOL 10: VENN DIAGRAM

The Venn diagram is a preparatory tool which provides a reasonable complement to the STAKEHOLDER MAP. It is used to identify and map the participant's assessment of which stakeholders are relevant to the community for addressing child labour. It is then possible to identify organizations and/or individuals for further cooperation.

HOW TO IMPLEMENT THE TOOL

STEP 1:

Place a card with “child labour” in the centre of the pinboard for maximum visual effect. Ask the participants to discuss which groups, organizations, individuals, programmes or projects work on child labour in the programme region and which have an important role in addressing child labour in agriculture. Ensure that all members have the same understanding of what “important” means by, for example, defining specific criteria to describe the term “important”. The aim is not to obtain a comprehensive list but to gain an overview of the stakeholders whose actions reach the target group.

STEP 2:

Ask the participants to discuss which actors they consider most important in terms of their influence on child labour in the programme area. Write the names of the identified stakeholders on cards and place them around the “child labour” card. The more important the organization, group or individual is with regard to child labour, the bigger the card.

STEP 3:

Encourage the group to discuss the relationship between the identified stakeholders and group the cards on the basis of what emerges from the discussion. The closer the cards are to one another, the more interaction exists between the individuals or groups. If people, groups or organizations have overlapping functions, the cards should overlap as well.

EXAMPLE OF VISUALIZATION: VENN DIAGRAM

TOOL 11: VILLAGE SOCIAL MAP

The Village Social Map is used to create a detailed map of a specific community or village. On the basis of the map, it is possible to identify and discuss the characteristics, and social and economic structures of the community or village as well as of individual households. The village social map is best conducted at the beginning of the programme, when detailed knowledge about the programme region may not yet be available.

The village social map is an opportunity for programme beneficiaries to talk about their respective situations and participate actively in the process of identifying vulnerable households. The tool offers valuable information about potential influence factors on child labour, such as the composition and heads of households and their social and economic status. For this reason, the village social map is also a good basis for selecting the sample for further data collection.

HOW TO IMPLEMENT THE TOOL

STEP 1:

Ask the participants to draw a map indicating all the institutions and relevant sites in the community (e.g. schools, health centres, local administration offices, shops, whereabouts of village leaders, places where people frequently meet to socialize). To facilitate orientation, it is advisable to draw roads and significant landmarks beforehand.

STEP 2:

Ask the participants to draw all the households. Ask them to insert information about the composition and head of each household, as well as its social and economic status in the community.

STEP 3:

Ask the participants to indicate the village's agricultural sites (e.g. fields, gardens, plantations, fish lakes, locations of fuel, wood collection, animal gazing and drinking), commune irrigation systems, wells etc.

STEP 4:

Encourage the participants to discuss, on the basis of the map, the village's social situation, for example, the increase/decrease in households during recent years, labour migration, the existence of households headed by women/grandparents/children and the subsistence strategies adopted.

Topics for the discussion on child labour

Households

- Household chores of children

Agricultural sites

- Agricultural tasks of children

- Risks and hazards of agricultural tasks, household chores and working duties

- Working hours per day/week

School

- School enrolment

- Regularity of school attendance

- Reasons for school absences

Health centre

- Work-related accidents

- Work-related diseases

TOOL 12: OBSERVATION WALK

The observation walk is a way to experience the environment of a village and gather information about its economic and social characteristics. It is therefore a useful preparatory tool for further data collection. Walking around the village provides visual triggers and makes it easier for participants to talk about the village, the nature of its agricultural businesses and, eventually, the child labour situation. By giving the villagers time and space to share their living environment, issues may emerge which might otherwise have been overlooked, but that are important to be considered when further assessing child labour.

HOW TO IMPLEMENT THE TOOL

STEP 1:

Become familiar with the observation criteria and the templates. If necessary, adapt the templates to the specific regional context.

STEP 2:

Explain to the participants that you would like them to show you around their village, in particular the agricultural production sites (fields, gardens, plantations, fish lakes etc.). Focus also on public services, such as schools and health centres. Try to register any additional influencing factors.

STEP 3:

Decide together with the participants on the path for the observation walk.

STEP 4:

Accompany the participants on the decided route. If necessary, do not hesitate to make modifications to the path. To maximize the visual potential, encourage the participants to explain the surroundings while you walk. If necessary, stop at specific locations for detailed discussions on the points emerging.

STEP 5:

Encourage the participants to talk about and discuss any economic and social issues they consider important in the community. If appropriate, address the child labour topic in the discussions.

Take detailed notes during the observation walk. Notes should contain participants' statements, discussions, any controversies arising and your own observations and remarks.

TOOL 13: PROBLEM AND SOLUTION TREE

The problem and solution tree is used to map out the causes and consequences of child labour and to structure possible solutions. The discussion leads to the identification of factors that the programme may need to tackle to address child labour. The tool can therefore make an important contribution to the programme's planning and M&E process.

The problem and solution tree helps gain a better understanding of and greater awareness about the topic of child labour and gives participants a shared sense of the underlying problems and solutions.

HOW TO IMPLEMENT THE TOOL

STEP 1:

Prepare a flip chart and write “child labour” in the centre of the first sheet of paper: this is the “trunk” of the tree.

STEP 2:

Ask the participants to discuss the causes and consequences of child labour in their community. The identified causes and consequences can be written on cards and arranged according to cause and effect. The causes are the “roots” of the tree and the consequences the “branches”.

Take time to allow the participants to explain their feelings and reasoning, as the heart of this tool is the discussion as causes and consequences are named, arranged and re-arranged. Record related ideas and points as they come up on separate sheets of paper under headings such as “Solutions”, “Concerns” and “Decisions”.

Guiding questions

? What are the main causes of child labour? Which factors influence the working situation of children?

? What are the consequences of child labour? Which are the most serious consequences?

? Which causes and consequences are improving, which are getting worse and which are staying the same?

STEP 3:

Convert the “problem tree” into a “solution tree” by rephrasing each of the problems into positive desirable outcomes. Root causes and consequences thus become solutions, and key programme elements and significant entry points are quickly identified. The solution tree may point to several possible interventions to solve a problem. This step is therefore adapted to the focus group discussion, directly involving the participants in the creation of solutions. It can also be conducted by the programme staff following the focus group discussion.

Guiding questions

? Which causes are easiest / most difficult to address?

? What possible solutions or options are there?

? How can the agricultural programme help address a cause or consequence, or create a solution?

? What expectations do the participants have with regard to the agricultural programmes improving the working situation of children?

STEP 4:

Select a preferred strategy for the intervention. Depending on the programme's funding, time and relevance, an already-planned intervention may not be able to tackle all the causes. It is therefore important to establish whether any of the branches are more influential than others in solving a problem.

EXAMPLE OF VISUALIZATION: PROBLEM TREE

TOOL 14: INFLUENCE MATRIX

The influence matrix is used to analyse the impacts of the agricultural programme on defined criteria relative to children's working situation, education and health. The matrix helps the participants discuss the programme's influences on child labour and pinpoint its positive and negative impacts. In order to correlate the programme's impacts on child labour, it is important to consider influences both of the programme and of relevant external factors.

HOW TO IMPLEMENT THE TOOL

STEP 1:

Prepare a paper for the pinboard based on the template. Fill in the main programme activities.

STEP 2:

Explain to the participants that the discussion should be about how the agricultural programme influences the working, educational and health situation of children and about any other relevant factors.

STEP 3:

Invite the participants to discuss how the agricultural programme and its activities influence their daily life in general.

STEP 4:

Ask the participants if and how the agricultural programme activities influence the working, educational and health situation of children. For each programme activity, discuss its impacts on the six given criteria. Write the impacts (including why they are positive or negative) into the matrix. After writing the impacts down, the participants can rate the influence of the activities using a scoring system (see “Rating the influence”).

STEP 5:

Ask participants to cite other important factors (besides the programme activities) influencing children's work, education and health and write them in the matrix.

RATING THE INFLUENCE

There are different ways to rate the influence of agricultural programmes. Discuss within the programme team whether it is appropriate to integrate the rating in the influence matrix.

TOOL 15: IMPACT DISCUSSION

The impact discussion is a more open form of focus group discussion, used to discuss previous findings with the target group and complement the findings. It helps gain a deeper understanding of child labour, of factors influencing the child labour situation and of the impacts of the agricultural programme on child labour.

The impact discussion helps understand the reasons for assessed changes and inconsistencies in the collected data and can be used to fill in information gaps. The discussion can take various forms, and it should be designed on the basis of the information required. The impact discussion can therefore use the SPIDER DIAGRAM if it is important to visualize the results; alternatively, the discussion can be based on the completed PROGRAMME IMPACT ANALYSIS or EXTENDED PROGRAMME IMPACT ANALYSIS.

HOW TO IMPLEMENT THE TOOL

STEP 1:

Prepare the discussion topic using the findings of the previous data collection. For maximum visual impact, it is recommended to present the findings on a pinboard or flip chart.

STEP 2:

Present and explain the findings to the group and ask the participants for their opinion. Encourage them to discuss the findings and highlight any controversies and disagreements.

STEP 3:

Ask the participants to discuss how the agricultural programme influences the child labour situation and what other factors affect the situation.

TOOL 16: SCHOOL ATTENDANCE MONITORING

School attendance is one of the most important criteria for the assessment of child labour. School attendance monitoring can be used by agricultural programmes to monitor children's school attendance and the reasons for absences.

HOW TO IMPLEMENT THE TOOL

STEP 1:

Print out the School Attendance Monitoring Sheet. Provide local teachers with enough copies and explain how to fill out the template. The monitoring sheet is prepared for 35 pupils and 20 school days; if necessary, adapt the sheet or ask the teacher to revise it. It might also be necessary to adapt the possible reasons for absence to the local context.

STEP 2:

Ask the local teacher to fill out the attendance monitoring sheet on a regular basis, observing the pupils' absences and asking for the reasons for absence.

Collect data on a regular, possibly daily, basis, because teachers and children may not be able to recall precisely days already passed.

Be aware that some children may feel ashamed of not being able to regularly attend school and may not want to speak openly about the reasons for their absence. In such cases, ask children individually about the reasons for their absence.

STEP 3:

Complete the school attendance monitoring sheet:

- List the name, age and sex for each class pupil in the monitoring sheet.

- Mark daily whether the children were present or absent. Use a tick (✓) for present.

- If a child was absent on a particular day, ask why and mark the absence with one of the following letters:

1. Illness

2. No textbook or pencil

3. School uniform not washed/dried

4. Long distance to school

5. Helping parents with household work

6. Taking care of younger siblings

7. Helping parents in the field

8. Caring for animals

9. Fishing

10. Out of village to sell something on the market

11. Working for others for money or food

12. Other reason (specify)

STEP 4:

Use the school attendance monitoring sheet as a source of information for the programme's monitoring process. However, the programme has a responsibility towards both children and parents and school attendance is a potentially sensitive subject. It is therefore important to think carefully about if and how to approach families whose children do not attend school on a regular basis.

TOOLKIT: TEMPLATES

HOW TO USE THE TEMPLATES

This part of the Toolkit contains the templates for the various tools described. The templates are in the form of interview guidelines, questionnaires, matrixes or observation sheets. They should be adapted to the specific context and can then be printed out or copied.

CONTENT

TEMPLATE 1 – INTERVIEW WITH PROGRAMME BENEFICIARY:

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR INTERVIEWS WITH PROGRAMME BENEFICIARIES

TEMPLATE 2 – INTERVIEW WITH A CHILD:

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR INTERVIEWS WITH CHILDREN

TEMPLATE 3 – EXPERT INTERVIEW:

INTERVIEW GUIDELINE

TEMPLATE 4 – OBSERVATION WALK:

OBSERVATION SHEET

TEMPLATE 5 – INFLUENCE MATRIX:

INFLUENCE MATRIX

TEMPLATE 6 – SCHOOL ATTENDANCE MONITORING:

SCHOOL ATTENDANCE MONITORING SHEET

APPENDIX I

POTENTIAL POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF AGRICULTURAL PROGRAMMMES ON CHILD LABOUR

APPENDIX II
TYPICAL TASKS, HAZARDS AND RISKS OF CHILDREN'S WORK IN AGRICULTURE

II.1 CHILD LABOUR IN CROP PRODUCTION

II.2 CHILD LABOUR IN LIVESTOCK

II.3 CHILD LABOUR IN FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE

II.4 CHILD LABOUR IN FORESTRY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Better Evaluation. 2014. Logframe. (available at http://betterevaluation.org/evaluation-options/logframe, 12/08/2014)

Crossroads to Development. 2011a. Research on child labour in subsistence freshwater fishing. Final Report. Children's Empowerment Through Education Services (CHES) Project, Winrock International Cambodia.

Crossroads to Development. 2011b. Research on child labour in subsistence agriculture. Final Report. Children's Empowerment Through Education Services (CHES) Project, Winrock International Cambodia.

DeGEval. 2010. Verfahren der Wirkungsanalyse. Ein Handbuch für die entwicklungspolitische Praxis. Arnold-Bergstraesser-Institut, Freiburg.

FAO. 2014. Food, agriculture & decent work. ILO & FAO working together. Youth employment. (available at http://www.fao-ilo.org/fao-ilo-youth/youth-employment-read-more/en/, 12/08/2014)

FAO. 2002. Reducing poverty and hunger: The critical role of financing for food, agriculture and rural development. (available at http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/y6265e/y6265e03.htm, 12/08/2014)

FAO. 2010a. Breaking the rural poverty cycle: Getting girls and boys out of work and into school. (available at http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i2008e/i2008e07.pdf, 12/08/2014)

FAO. 2010b. Monitoring and evaluation toolkit for Junior Farmer Field and Life Schools. (available at http://www.fao.org/docrep/012/i1489e/i1489e00.pdf, 12/08/2014)

FAO. 2010c. Child labour prevention in agriculture: Junior Farmer Field and Life School – Facilitator's guide. (available at http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1897e/i1897e.pdf, 12/08/2014)

FAO. 2012a. Conservation Agriculture and Sustainable Crop Intensification in Karatu District, Tanzania. Integrated Crop Management, Vol. 15–2012.

FAO. 2012b. FAO's contribution to reducing and preventing child labour in agriculture 2007–11. Information Material, Rural Employment.

FAO. 2013. Children's work in the livestock sector: Herding and beyond. (available at http://www.fao.org/docrep/017/i3098e/i3098e.pdf, 12/08/2014)

FAO. 2014. What do we really know about the number and distribution of farms and family farms in the world? Background paper for The State of Food and Agriculture 2014, ESA Working Paper No. 14–02. (available at http://www.fao.org/docrep/019/i3729e/i3729e.pdf, 12/08/2014)

FAO–ILO–IFAD. 2010. Breaking the rural poverty cycle: Getting girls and boys out of work and into school. Gender and Rural Employment Policy Brief No. 7.

FAO–ILO. 2011. Good practice guide for addressing child labour in fisheries and aquaculture policy and practice. (available at ftp://ftp.fao.org/FI/DOCUMENT/child_labour_FAO-ILO/child_labour_FAO-ILO.pdf, 12/08/2014)

FAO–ILO. 2013. Guidance on addressing child labour in fisheries and aquaculture. (available at http://www.fao.org/docrep/018/i3318e/i3318e.pdf, 12/08/2014)

FAO–ILO. 2015. E-Learning Course: End Child Labour in Agriculture. Lesson 6(1): Monitoring progress to address child labour in agriculture, Annex 6(1): Child labour indicators in agricultural programmes, Lesson 6(2): Evidence of impact. (available at http://www.fao.org/elearning/#/elc/en/courses/CL)

Grimsrud, B. 2001. Measuring and analyzing child labor: Methodological issues. (available at http://siteresources.worldbank.org/SOCIALPROTECTION/Resources/SP-Discussion-papers/Child-Labor-DP/0123.pdf, 12/08/2014)

ILO. 2004. Global child labour data review: a gender perspective. Girl child labour studies, Vol. 3. Geneva.

ILO. 2005. Guidelines for labour inspection in forestry. (available at http://www.ilo.org/safework/info/standards-and-instruments/WCMS_107610/lang--en/index.htm, 12/08/2014)

ILO. 2006. Tackling hazardous child labour in agriculture. Guidance on policy and practice. (available at http://www.ilo.org/safework/info/instr/WCMS_110200/lang--en/index.htm, 12/08/2014)

ILO. 2008. Sampling for household-based surveys of child labour. Geneva.

ILO. 2009. Training resource package for agricultural cooperatives on the elimination of the worst forms of child labour. Book 1 – Trainer's Guide. (available at http://www.ilo.org/public/english/support/lib/resource/subject/coop/ipec_coop_book1.pdf, 12/08/2014)

ILO. 2012a. Farming. (available at http://www.ilo.org/ipec/areas/Agriculture/WCMS_172416/lang--en/index.htm, 12/08/2014)

ILO. 2012b. Fishing and aquaculture. (available at http://www.ilo.org/ipec/areas/Agriculture/WCMS_172419/lang--en/index.htm, 12/08/2014)

ILO. 2012c. Forestry. (available at http://www.ilo.org/ipec/areas/Agriculture/WCMS_172421/lang--en/index.htm, 12/08/2014)

ILO. 2012d. Livestock production. (available at http://www.ilo.org/public/english/support/lib/resource/subject/coop/ipec_coop_book1.pdf, 12/08/2014).

ILO–IPEC. 2012a. Assessing the impact of safer agricultural practices, labour saving technologies and other related practices on child labour: A case of FAO–FICA Project, CICOD Project and District Labour Office Programme in Kasungu District, Malawi.

ILO–IPEC. 2012b. Towards the elimination of hazardous child labour: Practices with good potential. Geneva.

ILO–IPEC. 2013. Converging against child labour – a training manual on participatory appraisal. ILO, New Dehli.

ILO–IPEC. 2014. Compendium of good practices on addressing child labour in agriculture. Geneva.

ILO–UNICEF. 2005. Manual on child labour – rapid assessment methodology. Statistical Information and Monitoring Programme on Child Labour, Geneva.

International Initiative to End Child Labour. Baseline studies for impact evaluation. (available at http://endchildlabor.org/?page_id=92, 12/08/2014)

IPEC. 2011. Children in hazardous work – What we know, what we need to know. (http://www.ilo.org/ipecinfo/product/viewProduct.do?productId=17035, 12/08/2014)

Kumar, S. 2002. Methods for community participation: a complete guide for practioners. New Dehli.

Neubert, S. & Kysia, K. 2010. COMPACI M&E. MAPP Focus Group Discussions Training Manual. German Development Institute (DIE) / National Opinion Research Centre (NORC) at the University of Chicago, Chicago/Lusaka.

OECD–DAC. 2010. Glossary of key terms in evaluation and results based management. (available at http://www.oecd.org/development/evaluation/dcdndep/43184177.pdf, 12/08/2014)

UNESCO. 2014. What do we mean by “youth”? (available at http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/themes/youth/youth-definition/, 12/08/2014)

UNICEF. 2012. Children working in commercial agriculture. Evidence from West and Central Africa. Briefing Paper No. 2. (available at http://www.unicef.org/wcaro/english/Briefing_paper_No_2_-_children_working_in_commercial_agriculture.pdf, 12/08/2014)

Varkevisser, C.M., Pathmanathan, I. & Brownlee, A.T. 2003. Designing and conducting health system research projects. Vol. 1: Proposal development and fieldwork. World Health Organization (WHO) / International Development Research Centre (IDRC).

Welthungerhilfe. 2008. Leitfaden Wirkungsorientierung in den Projekten und Programmen der Welthungerhilfe. (available at http://www.welthungerhilfe.de/ueber-uns/mediathek/whh-artikel/leitfaden-wirkungsorientierung-i.html, 12/08/2014)

WINROCK. 2008. Children's Empowerment through Education Services (CHES): Eliminating the Worst Forms of Child Labour in Agriculture in Cambodia. Monitoring and Evaluation Field Manual. Phnom Penh.

World Food Programme (WFP). 2014. Monitoring & Evaluation Guidelines. What is RBM Oriented M&E. (available at http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un/unpan032491.pdf, 12/08/2014)

FURTHER LINKS

Child labour in agriculture. FAO’s theme page: http://www.fao.org/childlabouragriculture

National Child Labour Surveys and other reports: http://www.ilo.org/ipec/ChildlabourstatisticsSIMPOC/Questionnairessurveysandreports/lang--en/index.htm

Further information on FAO activities: http://www.fao.org/childlabouragriculture/en/

The International Partnership for Cooperation on Child Labour in Agriculture is a cooperation between FAO, ILO, IFAD, IFPRI and IUF and offers specific information on the agricultural sector: http://www.childlabourinagriculture.org/

Country reports can be found at the ILO, UNICEF, World Bank research cooperation on ”Understanding Child Labour“: http://www.ucw-project.org

MORE RESOURCES ON PREVENTING AND REDUCING CHILD LABOUR IN AGRICULTURE

FAO-ILO E-learning course: ‘End Child Labour in Agriculture’

www.fao.org/elearning/end-child-labour-in-agriculture

The course is designed to raise awareness and build knowledge among agricultural stakeholders about the importance of addressing child labour in agriculture, including livestock, forestry, fisheries and aquaculture. It aims to build specific skills, depending on work-related responsibilities and tasks and/or interests, by providing concrete ideas and guidance that can be applied in real life agricultural policy and programming situations.

The course will be relevant for many learners, but is specifically relevant for:

- Agricultural policy-makers and advisors

- Agricultural programme designers and implementers

- Agricultural researchers

- Agricultural statisticians

The course includes the following units:

Unit 1 Introduction to child labour in agriculture

Unit 2 Identifying and coordinating stakeholders

Unit 3 Assessing and generating data to inform policies and programmes

Unit 4 Incorporating child labour into national policies

Unit 5 Addressing child labour in agricultural programmes

Unit 6 Monitoring and evaluating the impact of agricultural initiatives on child labour

Unit 7 Developing capacity and advocacy to address child labour in agriculture

Unit 8 Supplementary lessons on pesticides, business and youth employment

Junior Farmer Field and Life Schools (Facilitator’s Guide): Module on Child Labour Prevention
www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1897e/i1897e.pdf

Guidance on addressing child labour in fisheries and aquaculture
www.fao.org/docrep/018/i3318e/i3318e.pdf

Visual Facilitator’s Guide: Protect Children from Pesticides!
www.fao.org/3/a-i3527e.pdf

Children’s work in the livestock sector
www.fao.org/docrep/018/i2971e/i2971e.pdf

Decent rural employment for food security: A case for action
www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2750e/i2750e00.pdf

Passport to mainstreaming gender in water programmes: Key questions for interventions in the agricultural sector
www.fao.org/docrep/017/i3173e/i3173e.pdf

FAO’s website on child labour in agriculture

www.fao.org/childlabouragriculture/en

Knowledge Hub of the International Partnership for Cooperation on Child Labour in Agriculture

www.childlabourinagriculture.org

1    FAO–ILO 2014: 6(2).

2    Examples are based on FAO 2012a, ILO–IPEC 2012a, ILO–IPEC 2014.

3    ILO–IPEC 2014.

4    Examples are based on FAO 2010c, FAO 2012b, FAO–ILO–IFAD 2010, ILO–IPEC 2012a, ILO–IPEC 2012b, ILO–IPEC 2014.

5    For further information http://www.ilo.org/ipec/Campaignandadvocacy/RedCardtoChildLabour/lang--en/index.htm

6    IPEC 2011: 3.

7    FAO–ILO 2013: 7.

8    FAO–ILO 2013: 9.

9    UNESCO.

10  FAO.

11  FAO–ILO 2013: 10.

12  FAO 2013: 18f.

13  FAO 2013: 2.

14  FAO 2014: 1.

15  FAO 2014: 1.

16  FAO 2002.

17  For further information http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTRESEARCH/EXTWDRS/0,,contentMDK:21501332~pagePK:478093~piPK:477627~theSitePK:477624,00.html

18  ILO–IPEC 2013: 22.

19  FAO 2010c.

20  FAO 2013: 12.

21  FAO 2013: 12.

22  ILO convention 189 defines domestic work and domestic workers. Domestic work is work performed in the home of a third party or employer. Domestic chores performed by children in their own household are not covered by the definition of domestic work and therefore cannot be defined as child labour. However in some extreme cases, situations are considered tantamount to child labour.

23  FAO 2013: 38–40.

24  ILO 2012a.

25  FAO 2010a: 17, ILO 2012a.

26  FAO–ILO 2013: 23/31.

27  FAO–ILO 2013: III.

28  FAO–ILO 2013: 25–29.

29  ILO 2012b, FAO–ILO 2013.

30  ILO 2012, for further information: http://www.childlabourinagriculture.org

31  FAO–ILO 2014.

32  ILO–IPEC 2014.

33  International Initiative to End Child Labour.

34  OECD–DAC 2010.

35  FAO–ILO 2014.

36  OECD–DAC 2010.

37  Tools are based on Kumar 2002, ILO–UNICEF 2005, FAO 2010c, ILO–IPEC 2013 and are adapted by the authors to the purpose of this Handbook.

38  Examples are based on FAO 2012a, FAO 2012b, FAO–ILO–IFAD 2010, ILO–IPEC 2005, ILO–IPEC 2012a, ILO–IPEC 2012b, UNICEF 2012, WINROCK 2008, Crossroads to Development 2011a, Crossroads to Development 2011b.

39  FAO 2010c, IPEC 2011.

40  FAO 2013: 41, IPEC 2011, ILO 2012c.

41  ILO 2012a, FAO–ILO 2011, FAO–ILO 2013: 28–29.

42  ILO 2005, ILO 2012b.